Study Areas

• Bear’s Ears elk herd (DAU E-2)
• Trinchera elk herd (DAU E-33)
• Uncompahgre Plateau elk herd (DAU E-20)

Project Status

Research Objectives

• To estimate calf and adult female survival and cause-specific mortality rates
• To quantify pregnancy rates and nutritional condition
• To evaluate factors influencing survival, pregnancy rates, and nutritional condition

Project Description

In 2017, researchers began a 2-year pilot study to investigate factors influencing elk recruitment in two study areas in the state. The initial pilot project was expanded into a 3^rd study area in 2019 and the research continues to better understand elk population dynamics in Colorado and determine how predators, habitat, and weather conditions are impacting elk recruitment in Colorado.

Reports:

Evaluating Factors Influencing Elk Recruitment in Colorado (2019-current)

Publications:

Crews, S., N.D. Rayl, M.W. Alldredge, E.J. Bergman, C.R. Anderson Jr., and G. Bastille-Rousseau. 2025. Drivers of spring migration phenology in Rocky Mountain elk. Scientific Reports 15:7807.

• Elk Abundance
• Development and validation methods to estimate abundance of elk

Areas of Interest and Expertise​

My research focuses on understanding the drivers of population dynamics of ungulates, with an emphasis on nutritional and disease ecology. I am interested in evaluating how stressors and responses to stressors influence fitness at the individual level — and ultimately how that scales up to shape population-level responses. I take approaches from physiology, to behavioral ecology, to population ecology to address questions that will ultimately benefit management. I also have an interest in developing and evaluating new tools and methods for studying and understanding animals.

Select Publications

• Abernathy, H. N., R. L. Levine, Y. N. Shakeri, J. T. Kolek, B. L. Wagler, R. A. Smiley, R. P. Jakopak, M. J. Brunet, R. T. Rafferty, S. T. Rankins, K. S. Huggler, B. Scurlock, J. Randall, D. Lutz, A. B. Courtemanch, T. N. LaSharr, S. P. H. Dwinnell, L. E. Tafelmeyer, P. W. Burke, P. Lionberger, M. Valdez, G. L. Fralick, D. McWhirter, and K. L. Monteith. 2025. Temperament and state-dependent behaviours in large herbivores. Animal Behaviour 221:123056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2024.123056
• Smiley, R. A., S. T. Rankins, J. N. Gavin, L. Millward, D. P. Thompson, J. A. Crouse, P. Van Wick, K. Anderson, C. W. Epps, A. E. Jolles, B. R. Beechler, R. L. Levine, T. N. LaSharr, B. L. Wagler, R. T. Rafferty, A. B. Courtemanch, T. W. Mong, and K. L. Monteith. 2025. AccelerometerBehavior: R package for classifying ungulate behaviors into three states. Ecology and Evolution 15:e72722. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.72722
• Argov, J. R., N. B. Michaels, R. A. Smiley, B. L. Wagler, J. N. Gavin, A. B. Courtemanch, D. Clause, R. C. Kaiser, D. Lutz, B. Scurlock, and K. L. Monteith. 2024. Prediction of birthdates based on fetal development in Bighorn Sheep ( Ovis canadensis ). R. Reyna, editor. Journal of Mammalogy 105:1151–1156. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyae082
• Malmberg, J. L., S. E. Allen, J. E. Jennings-Gaines, M. Johnson, K. L. Luukkonen, K. M. Robbins, T. E. Cornish, R. A. Smiley, B. L. Wagler, Z. Gregory, D. Lutz, P. Hnilicka, K. L. Monteith, and W. H. Edwards. 2024. Pathology of chronic mycoplasma ovipneumoniae carriers in a declining bighorn sheep (ovis canadensis) population. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 60. https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-23-00132
• Smiley, R. A., B. L. Wagler, W. H. Edwards, J. Jennings-Gaines, K. Luukkonen, K. Robbins, M. Johnson, A. B. Courtemanch, T. W. Mong, D. Lutz, D. McWhirter, J. L. Malmberg, B. Lowrey, and K. L. Monteith. 2024. Infection–nutrition feedbacks: fat supports pathogen clearance but pathogens reduce fat in a wild mammal. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 291:20240636. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.0636
• Wagler, B. L., R. A. Smiley, A. B. Courtemanch, D. Lutz, D. McWhirter, D. Brimeyer, P. Hnilicka, and K. L. Monteith. 2024. Disparate home range dynamics reflect nutritional inadequacies on summer range for a large herbivore. Ecosphere 15:e4864. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4864
• Levine, R. L., Rachel A Smiley, Jesmer, Brett R., Oates, Brendan A., Goheen, Jacob R., Stephenson, Thomas R., Kauffman, Matthew J., and Montetih, Kevin L. 2023. Extending body condition scoring beyond measureable rump fat to estimate full range of nutritional condition for moose. Alces 58:91–99. https://alcesjournal.org/index.php/alces/article/view/1883
• Tucker, M. A., …R. A. Smiley, …and T. Mueller. 2023. Behavioral responses of terrestrial mammals to COVID-19 lockdowns. Science 380:1059–1064. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo6499
• Wagler, B. L., R. A. Smiley, A. B. Courtemanch, D. Lutz, D. McWhirter, D. Brimeyer, P. Hnilicka, T. J. Robinson, and K. L. Monteith. 2023. Implications of forage quality for population recovery of bighorn sheep following a pneumonia epizootic. The Journal of Wildlife Management 87:e22452. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.22452
• Smiley, R. A., T. N. LaSharr, H. N. Abernathy, Y. N. Shakeri, R. L. Levine, S. T. Rankins, R. P. Jakopak, R. T. Rafferty, J. T. Kolek, B. L. Wagler, S. P. H. Dwinnell, T. J. Robinson, J. E. Randall, R. C. Kaiser, M. Thonhoff, B. Scurlock, T. Fieseler, G. L. Fralick, and K. L. Monteith. 2022. Biomarkers of animal nutrition: from seasonal to lifetime indicators of environmental conditions. Life 12:375. https://doi.org/10.3390/life12030375
• Smiley, R. A., B. L. Wagler, T. N. LaSharr, K. A. Denryter, T. R. Stephenson, A. B. Courtemanch, T. W. Mong, D. Lutz, D. McWhirter, D. Brimeyer, P. Hnilicka, B. Lowrey, and K. L. Monteith. 2022. Heterogeneity in risk‐sensitive allocation of somatic reserves in a long‐lived mammal. Ecosphere 13:e4161. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4161
• Wagler, B. L., R. A. Smiley, A. B. Courtemanch, G. Anderson, D. Lutz, D. McWhirter, D. Brimeyer, P. Hnilicka, C. P. Massing, D. W. German, T. R. Stephenson, and K. L. Monteith. 2022. Effects of helicopter net‐gunning on survival of bighorn sheep. The Journal of Wildlife Management 86:e22181. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.22181
• Smiley, R. A., C. D. Rittenhouse, T. W. Mong, and K. L. Monteith. 2020. Assessing nutritional condition of mule deer using a photographic index. Wildlife Society Bulletin 44:208–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.1070

• Ph.D., Ecology – University of Wyoming, 2025
• B.S., Natural Resources –​ University of Connecticut, 2017 

Contact Information

317 W. Prospect Rd.​
Fort Collins, CO 80526

Email: rachel.smiley@stat​e.co.us​

Bobcat Ecology and Management

• Bobcat ecology
  • Where do bobcats occur?
    • Determining where bobcats select habitats and resources
  • What do bobcats eat?
    • Spatial and temporal variation in prey availability
    • Determining dietary composition and prey use/selection
  • Bobcat monitoring and management
    • How many bobcats are out there?
      • Evaluating statistical methods for estimating bobcat abundance/density
    • What are causes of bobcat mortality?
      • Estimating the relative magnitude of mortality sources
    • Bobcat reproduction
      • Spatial and temporal variation in bobcat family group occurrence
    • Understanding changes in bobcat population size
      • Determining potential important factors affecting bobcat population density and dynamics (e.g. habitat, prey availability, and harvest rate)
    • Improving bobcat data collection methods and population inference
      • Enhancing age classification through dentition and teeth measurements
      • Exploring cutting-edge methods in population size/density estimation

Areas of Interest and Expertise​

My background is in terrestrial wildlife ecology with a focus on carnivores (primarily bears and bobcats) and harvest, though my interests vary widely. I have interest in exploring both the lives and deaths of wildlife and how individual contexts scale up to have population level effects. This encapsulates both the contextual decisions of individual animals and how we manage and conserve their populations. I have researched several themes, including animal movement, connectivity, sociality, carcass ecology, and the effects of harvest. Moreover, I have utilized a multitude of data collection methods (e.g. location data, genetics, isotopes) and statistical approaches to answer research questions under these themes. My overarching aim is help provide pragmatic answers to (1) applied questions and (2) contribute to the ever-advancing suite of data collection and analytical tools available to practitioners. Moreover, I hope to (3) help bridge the knowledge gap between wildlife science, research findings, and people.

Select Publications

• Heeres, R. W., Leclerc, M., Frank, S., Kopatz, A., Pelletier, F., & Zedrosser, A. (2025). Flexibility in female spatiotemporal behavioral tactics to counter infanticide risk during the mating season. Movement Ecology, 13(1), 35.
• Hertel, A. G., Parres, A., Frank, S. C., Renaud, J., Selva, N., Zedrosser, A., Balkenhol, N., Maiorano, L., Fedorca, A., Dutta, T., Bogdanovic, N., Bragalanti, N., Chiriac, S., Cirovic, D., Ciucci, P., Domokos, C., Fedorca, M., Filacorda, S., Findo, S., . . . De Barba, M. (2025). Human Footprint and Forest Disturbance Reduce Space Use of Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) Across Europe. Glob Chang Biol, 31(1), e70011. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70011
• Lucas, P. M., Thuiller, W., Talluto, L., Polaina, E., Albrecht, J., Selva, N., De Barba, M., Penteriani, V., Gueguen, M., Balkenhol, N., Dutta, T., Fedorca, A., Frank, S. C., Zedrosser, A., Afonso-Jordana, I., Ambarli, H., Ballesteros, F., Bashta, A. T., Bilgin, C. C., . . . Pollock, L. J. (2025). Trophic Interactions Are Key to Understanding the Effects of Global Change on the Distribution and Functional Role of the Brown Bear. Glob Chang Biol, 31(6), e70252. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70252
• Zarzo-Arias, A., Heeres, R. W., Hertel, A. G., Leclerc, M., Frank, S., Steyaert, S. M., ... & Zedrosser, A. (2025). “The landscape of love”: sex-specific habitat-use during the mating season in a solitary large carnivore. Landscape Ecology, 40(12), 222.
• Hertel, A. G., Albrecht, J., Selva, N., Sergiel, A., Hobson, K. A., Janz, D. M., Mulch, A., Kindberg, J., Hansen, J. E., Frank, S. C., Zedrosser, A., & Mueller, T. (2024). Ontogeny shapes individual dietary specialization in female European brown bears (Ursus arctos). Nat Commun, 15(1), 10406. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54722-z
• Heeres, R. W., Leclerc, M., Frank, S., Kopatz, A., Pelletier, F., & Zedrosser, A. (2024). Are nonsocial species more social than we think? Seasonal patterns in sociality in a solitary terrestrial carnivore. Animal Behaviour, 216, 107-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2024.07.022
• Zedrosser, A., Frank, S. C., Hansen, J. E., Steyaert, S. M. J. G., & Swenson, J. E. (2023). The social system of a "nonsocial" species, the brown bear. In Bear and Human (Vol. 3, pp. 121-128). Brepols Publishers. https://doi.org/doi:10.1484/M.TANE-EB.5.134329
• Hansen, J. E., Hertel, A. G., Frank, S. C., Kindberg, J., & Zedrosser, A. (2023). The role of familial conflict in home range settlement and fitness of a solitary mammal. Animal Behaviour, 202, 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.05.006
• Dutta, T., De Barba, M., Selva, N., Fedorca, A. C., Maiorano, L., Thuiller, W., Zedrosser, A., Signer, J., Pflüger, F., Frank, S., Lucas, P. M., & Balkenhol, N. (2023). An objective approach to select surrogate species for connectivity conservation. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1078649
• Thorsen, N. H., Hansen, J. E., Stoen, O. G., Kindberg, J., Zedrosser, A., & Frank, S. C. (2022). Movement and habitat selection of a large carnivore in response to human infrastructure differs by life stage. Mov Ecol, 10(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-022-00349-y
• Hansen, J. E., Hertel, A. G., Frank, S. C., Kindberg, J., & Zedrosser, A. (2022). Social environment shapes female settlement decisions in a solitary carnivore. Behav Ecol, 33(1), 137-146. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arab118
• Arnberg, M. P., Frank, S. C., Blaalid, R., Davey, M. L., Eycott, A. E., & Steyaert, S. (2022). Directed endozoochorous dispersal by scavengers facilitate sexual reproduction in otherwise clonal plants at cadaver sites. Ecol Evol, 12(1), e8503. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8503
• Frank, S. C., Pelletier, F., Kopatz, A., Bourret, A., Garant, D., Swenson, J. E., Eiken, H. G., Hagen, S. B., & Zedrosser, A. (2021). Harvest is associated with the disruption of social and fine-scale genetic structure among matrilines of a solitary large carnivore. Evol Appl, 14(4), 1023-1035. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.13178
• Frank, S. C., Blaalid, R., Mayer, M., Zedrosser, A., & Steyaert, S. (2020). Fear the reaper: ungulate carcasses may generate an ephemeral landscape of fear for rodents. R Soc Open Sci, 7(6), 191644. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191644
• Rivrud, I. M., Frank, S. C., Bischof, R., Mysterud, A., Steyaert, S., Hertel, A. G., Hagen, S. B., Eiken, H. G., Swenson, J. E., & Zedrosser, A. (2019). Heritability of head size in a hunted large carnivore, the brown bear (Ursus arctos). Evol Appl, 12(6), 1124-1135. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12786
• Badia, R., Blaalid, R., Puliti, S., Steyaert, S. M. J. G., & Frank, S. C. (2019). Reindeer carcasses provide foraging habitat for insectivorous birds of the alpine tundra. Ornis Norvegica, 42, 36-40. https://doi.org/10.15845/on.v42i0.2639
• Steyaert, S., Frank, S. C., Puliti, S., Badia, R., Arnberg, M. P., Beardsley, J., Okelsrud, A., & Blaalid, R. (2018). Special delivery: scavengers direct seed dispersal towards ungulate carcasses. Biol Lett, 14(8). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0388
• Frank, S. C., Leclerc, M., Pelletier, F., Rosell, F., Swenson, J. E., Bischof, R., Kindberg, J., Eiken, H. G., Hagen, S. B., & Zedrosser, A. (2018). Sociodemographic factors modulate the spatial response of brown bears to vacancies created by hunting. J Anim Ecol, 87(1), 247-258. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12767
• Leclerc, M., Frank, S. C., Zedrosser, A., Swenson, J. E., & Pelletier, F. (2017). Hunting promotes spatial reorganization and sexually selected infanticide. Sci Rep, 7, 45222. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45222
• Frank, S. C., Ordiz, A., Gosselin, J., Hertel, A., Kindberg, J., Leclerc, M., Pelletier, F., Steyaert, S. M. J. G., Støen, O.-G., Van de Walle, J., Zedrosser, A., & Swenson, J. E. (2017). Indirect effects of bear hunting: a review from Scandinavia. Ursus, 28(2), 150-164. https://doi.org/10.2192/ursu-d-16-00028.1
• Steyaert, S. M. J. G., Zedrosser, A., Elfström, M., Ordiz, A., Leclerc, M., Frank, S. C., Kindberg, J., St⊘en, O. G., Brunberg, S., & Swenson, J. E. (2016). Ecological implications from spatial patterns in human‐caused brown bear mortality. Wildlife Biology, 22(4), 144-152. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00165
• Frank, S. C., Steyaert, S. M., Swenson, J. E., Storch, I., Kindberg, J., Barck, H., & Zedrosser, A. (2015). A "clearcut" case? Brown bear selection of coarse woody debris and carpenter ants on clearcuts. For Ecol Manage, 348, 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.03.051

Education

• Ph.D., Ecology – University of South-Eastern Norway (formerly Telemark University College), 2017
• M.S., Forest Ecology and Management – University of Freiburg, 2011
• B.S., Wildlife Biology –​ Colorado State University, 2003

Current or Recent Positions

• Wildlife Research Scientist – Colorado Parks and Wildlife, State of Colorado, 2022-Present
• Statistical Analyst / Quality Specialist Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, 2020-2022, State of Colorado
• Postdoctoral Associate –​ “BearConnect”, Department of Nature, Health, and Environment, University of South-Eastern Norway, 2017-2020

Contact Information

346 Co Rd 362
Hot Sulphur Springs, CO 80451

Email: shane.frank@state.co.us

Phone: ​970-646-2961

Responsibilities

​Provide data management, database development, and technical/analytical support for the Mammals Research, Avian Research, Wildlife Health, and Species Conservation Teams within the Terrestrial Section at Colorado Parks and Wildlife.

Areas of Interest and Expertise​

My interests lie in bridging the gap between technology and on-the-ground work within wildlife science and the greater natural resources community, bringing data-related ideas to life and working through the technical challenges to do so. I enjoy building custom database solutions from the ground up, tailoring front-end applications and back-end databases to the specific needs of researchers and biologists. I am also dedicated to implementing data management strategies that ensure long-term preservation and maximize future usability of data. My areas of expertise lie in database development and management, application development, data analysis, data quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC), and geographic information systems.

​​Education

• Graduate Certificate, Business Information Systems — Colorado State University, 2018
• B.S., Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology — Colorado State University, 2014

Current or Recent Positions

• Research & Species Conservation Database Analyst / Manager — Colorado Parks and Wildlife, 2023-Present
• Environmental GIS Analyst | Database Specialist — Colorado State University Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands, 2017-2023
• Aquatic Database Technician — Colorado Parks and Wildlife, 2011-2016

• Evaluating Effects of Sport-hunting on a Mountain Lion Population​​
• Mountain Lion Demographics and Human Interactions Along the Urban-Exurban Front Range​
• ​Using Non-Invasive Genetic Sampling to Estimate Mountain Lion and Bobcat Abundance, Age Structure and Diet​

Study Area
Boulder, Jefferson, Gilpin and Larimer counties 

Project Status
Completed

Research Objectives

• To develop and test non-invasive genetic sampling techniques.
• To collect population data on mountain lions and bobcats.

Project Description

​​​​​​Colorado Parks and Wildlife issues a limited number of mountain lion and bobcat licenses to hunters every year. Mountain lion populations, in particular, are sensitive to female harvest. Thus, it is critical that wildlife mangers have access to the most reliable population data available. However, collecting mountain lion population data can often times be difficult or expensive to obtain.

Therefore CPW initiated a long-term project to develop non-invasive genetic sampling techniques to provide better, less expensive data on mountain lion and bobcat populations across the state. This project builds off of work completed by graduate student, Kirstie Yeager, in another CPW-led mountain lion study.

Non-invasive sampling techniques, such as hair snares, do not require physically handling an animal, thus these techniques are often less expensive and less intrusive to the animal. However, for non-invasive techniques like hair snares to work, mountain lions need to be lured to a hair-snare mechanism. Yeager's work found promise in the use of animal calls as effective lures and barbed wire snags as effective hair-snare mechanisms. In this study, animal calls lured mountain lions into a cubby in which the animal had to pass under barbed wire. However, building these cubbies was extremely time consuming and mountain lions did not always enter the cubby. Thus, this project aims to further develop  hair snags and refine non-invasive genetic techniques for sampling mountain lions and bobcats.

Bobcats are also attracted to these hair snag sites so the opportunity exists to sample both species within the same survey. With the increasing pelt prices for bobcats, it is likely that harvest pressure will continue for bobcats. Bobcat population data can help managers better manage bobcats and justify harvest levels. Thus, bobcat data will also be collected ​during this study.

The hair collected from hair-snare mechanisms will be used to analyze mountain lion/bobcat genetic data. This genetic data will be useful not only in estimating population size, but also age structure and diet. 

• Alldredge, M. W., T. Blecha, and J. H. Lewis. 2019. Less invasive monitoring of cougars in Colorado's Front Range. Wildlife Society Bulletin 43:222–230. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.971 
• Alldredge, M. W. 2007-2017. Cougar demographics and human interactions along the urban-exurban front range of Colorado. (Annual reports for this project combined into one file)

Study Area
Boulder and Jefferson Counties

Project Status
Completed - Read the ​June 2016 Wildlife Research Report​.​

Research Objectives

• To assess mountain lion population demographics, movements, habitat use, prey selectivity and human interactions along the urban-exurban Front Range.
• To assess conditioning techniques to keep mountain lions away from urban/exurban areas.
• To assess mountain lion response to relocation.

Project Description

Colorado Parks and Wildlife found that most people find value in maintaining Colorado's mountain lion population in a 2005 public opinion survey. However, concern is growing over increased human-mountain lion conflicts. As a result, CPW initiated a long-term study to test various management strategies to reduce conflict and to collect data on mountain lion populations. 

Researchers focused the study on two management strategies: aversive conditioning, a method used to train mountain lions to stay away from urban/exurban areas, and relocation, a method that must be used if a mountain lion is found in a residential neighborhood.

Because most human-mountain lion interactions occurred in residential neighborhoods, researchers had few possibilities to implement conditioning techniques, thus its effectiveness as a management technique led to mixed results. 

In the past, relocation has also shown mixed results, but renewed interest in this management technique prompted researchers to explore this method in more detail. Relocation if not planned properly, can result in subsequent conflicts or the animal's death. Therefore, a successful relocation requires a relocation site that is far enough from the problem area, has suitable prey, and is remote enough so that future conflicts do not occur. 

To collect data on mountain lion feeding behaviors, researchers captured and outfitted mountain lions with GPS collars. These collars transmitted GPS coordinates for each cat every three hours, which allowed researchers to identify likely kill sites. GPS data also allowed researchers to collect data on mountain lion movement and habitat use. 

Graduate students and professionals used the GPS data collected during this project to investigate other research questions related to mountain lion population demographics and feeding behavior. Summaries of these projects are listed below.

Mountain Lion Foraging in an Urban to Rural Landscape

This project aimed to collect data on mountain lion feeding practices. Using data from mountain lions with GPS collars, researchers determined when and where mountain lions killed their prey in relation to human development and habitat. 

Modeling Movements of Mountain Lions

Researchers developed movement models and examined mountain lion GPS data for various movement patterns relative to roads, human density/activity, and other landscape/environmental features.

• Hanks, E.M., M.B. Hooten, and M.W. Alldredge. 2012. Continuous-Time Discrete-Space Models for animal movement data. Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics.
• Hooten, M.B., E.M. Hanks, D.S. Johnson, and M.W. Alldredge. (2013). Temporal variation and scale in movement-based resource selection functions. Statistical Methodology, In Press.
• Hooten, M.B., E.M. Hanks, D.S. Johnson, and M.W. Alldredge. (2013). Reconciling resource utilization and resource selection functions. Journal of Animal Ecology, DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12080.

Predator-Prey Dynamics in Relation to Chronic Wasting Disease and Scavenging Interactions at Mountain Lion Kill Sites

This project aimed to document how often scavengers, such as black bears or red foxes, try to steal mountain lion kills and how successful they are in the process. Using motion-sensor cameras, researchers determined the average time it took for competing scavengers to arrive at a kill site and if the scavenger was successful at driving away the mountain lion. In addition, if a mountain lion killed a deer, elk or moose, the carcass was tested for chronic wasting disease. This allowed researchers to test the theory that predators seek out sick, old and young prey.  

The Use of Lures, Hair Snares, and Snow Tracking as Non-invasive Sampling Techniques to Detect and Identify Mountain Lions