https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/2c89e7b6b8193e5df951085c15ee9bda.pdf bab700e76ed8e8ef0b6ddc45bb0a9a45 PDF Text Text Post-Flood Recovery Assessment and Stream Restoration Guidelines for the Colorado Front Range Eric E. Richer, Matt C. Kondratieff, and Benjamin D. Swigle Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, Colorado November 19, 2014 Abstract Severe flooding impacted rivers and streams in the Colorado Front Range during September 2013. The flooding had devastating effects on communities and infrastructure, but had many beneficial effects on river ecosystems and stream functions. Flooding is a natural component of river systems that is vital for many ecological and physical processes. Following the flood, rebuilding infrastructure was given top priority and permitting processes were suspended or expedited to facilitate reconstruction activities. In many cases, emergency reconstruction activities led to degradation of stream functions and aquatic habitat. Degradation was often associated with the creation of trapezoidal and armored channels. Initial monitoring following the flood showed variable impacts to fish populations, with changes in trout abundance ranging from -58% to +69% at sites that were severely impacted by the flood but not further altered during emergency reconstruction. Monitoring sites that underwent substantial channel alterations during emergency reconstruction had an average change in trout abundance of -95%. Floods may provide an opportunity to improve a variety of stream functions related to channel stability, flood conveyance, geomorphology, water quality, and habitat connectivity. However, programmatic constraints at both the state and federal level limit opportunities to improve rivers beyond their preflood condition. Addressing permitting and funding constraints prior to the next major flood could greatly improve the efficiency and effectiveness of emergency flood response while reducing long-term maintenance and stream restoration costs. Introduction The Colorado Front Range was impacted by severe flooding in September 2013 as a result of a 1000year precipitation event. The intensity and duration of precipitation caused unprecedented runoff events in many rivers, which led to loss of life and substantial property damage. The Cache la Poudre, Big Thompson, St. Vrain, Left Hand, and Boulder watersheds experienced 25- to 500-year floods. Although the flood had devastating effects on infrastructure and daily life, it had many positive effects on natural stream functions. Flooding is a natural component of river ecology, and natural river systems not only benefit from, but are dependent upon, high flows for many ecological and physical processes. Given the devastating effects of floods on communities, it is not surprising that the functional benefits of floods on natural ecosystems are often misunderstood and understated. Flooding has many unfortunate effects, the most tragic being the loss of life and property. Preliminary estimates from the Colorado Water Conservation Board (CWCB) included nine fatalities, 16,000 damaged homes, 1,800 destroyed homes, 750 damaged businesses, 200 destroyed businesses, and 200 miles of damaged state highways. Stream gauges and water delivery infrastructure also suffered severe damages with 207 dams impacted, nine low hazard dams lost, and over 160 water-diversion structures damaged or destroyed (Colorado Division of Water Resources). In addition, damage to oil and gas and wastewater treatment facilities may have impacted water quality. This devastation required a swift Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 1 �and coordinated emergency response, and we are grateful to the emergency responders that saved lives and restored access to isolated communities. Colorado Parks and Wildlife (CPW) is responsible for perpetuating the wildlife resources of the state (C.R.S.§ 33-9-101 (12) (b)). CPW also holds more individual water rights in Colorado than any other entity and owns or manages publically-accessible properties along many rivers impacted by the flood. When combined, these factors provide a unique perspective on the flood. Habitat conservation, connectivity, enhancement, and restoration are all vital components of fisheries management. Management goals include maintaining sport fish populations that provide recreational and economic benefits and long-term conservation of native fish populations. From a functional standpoint, it is important to note that most rivers in the Colorado Front Range were already in a severely degraded state prior to the flood. Some characteristics of healthy rivers include the ability to convey water and sediment, longitudinal connectivity between upstream and downstream reaches, functioning riparian corridors that mitigate flood impacts when inundated, and habitat complexity that supports aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. Many of these characteristics are missing from large portions of rivers along the Colorado Front Range. Rivers and streams along the Colorado Front Range have experienced substantial anthropogenic changes over the past 200 years. These changes were largely due to historic land use activities and water development, such as beaver trapping, placer and gravel mining, flow regulation, timber harvest and tie drives, and construction of roads and railroads (Wohl, 2011). Most rivers in the Front Range are fragmented by numerous diversion structures that prevent upstream migration of fish, adversely affect sediment transport, entrain downstream migrating fish in irrigation ditches, and sporadically dry up river segments during periods of drought or baseflow. Roads have been constructed along many rivers in the Front Range, leaving little room to dissipate energy through the process of floodplain inundation during high flows. Many of these rivers and streams have also been channelized in an attempt to convey floods, protect infrastructure, and maximize crop production. However, experience has shown us that channelized, trapezoidal river channels experience massive channel adjustments during and immediately following floods while natural rivers with healthy and functioning floodplains do not. Yet channelization and armoring of rivers continues to be a common practice, despite the repeated failure of this approach during floods. The response to the 2013 floods along the Colorado Front Range has many positive aspects, highlighted by promptly-restored access to isolated communities, emergency protection of property and infrastructure, moving highways farther away from river channels, and protecting livelihoods through reconstruction and repair of water delivery infrastructure. However, there are many ways in which our response to floods could be improved. There are valuable lessons from the 2013 flood response that should be addressed prior to the next flood event. Floods may provide opportunities to improve the health of our rivers for the benefit of both local communities and the wildlife that depend on them. With proper advance planning, protecting communities and river ecosystems do not need to be mutually exclusive. There are opportunities to coordinate stream reconstruction activities so that multiple goals and objectives can be achieved simultaneously in a more efficient manner. The objectives of this paper are to improve understanding of natural stream functions, discuss more comprehensive approaches to emergency flood response and reconstruction, and develop conceptual guidelines for post-flood stream restoration. The overarching goal is to be better prepared for the next flood. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 2 �Post-Flood Recovery Assessment The flood recovery process was broken into two phases: (Phase I) emergency or exigent repairs and (Phase II) permanent repairs. Exigent repairs were focused on protecting life and property, and needed to be completed prior to snowmelt runoff in spring 2014. This exigent work consisted of rebuilding roads and water diversion structures, bank stabilization and armoring, and channel dredging to return rivers to their preexisting condition. Permanent repairs were mostly delayed until after runoff and will focus on infrastructure protection, bank stabilization, and stream restoration. In-stream construction and stream restoration are challenging processes that often involve interdisciplinary teams of engineers, hydrologists, geomorphologists, and biologists. Because rivers are highly dynamic systems used by a variety of stakeholders, processes have been implemented at both the state and federal level to protect rivers and streams from activities that lead to habitat degradation and loss of function. Colorado Senate Bill 40 (33-5-101-107, CRS 1973 as amended) exists to protect the state’s fish and wildlife resources from actions that obstruct, damage, diminish, destroy, change, modify, or vary the natural existing shape and form of any stream or its banks or tributaries. Highway construction projects and maintenance activities that impact any stream or its banks or tributaries require formal application to CPW for Senate Bill 40 (SB40) Certification. This process was suspended immediately following the flood to streamline reconstruction efforts. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act established a program to regulate the discharge of dredged or fill material into the waters of the United States, including Figure 1. Pictures of the South Fork of St. Vrain Creek wetlands. The 404 permitting process was also through Bohn Park showing pre-flood condition, postexpedited after the flood. Given the need for flood condition, and post-channelization condition. The yellow arrow denotes the same river birch. emergency reconstruction, expediting the SB40 and 404 processes was justifiable. However, these regulations exist to protect rivers from unnecessary degradation, and their absence likely contributed to degradation of aquatic resources during reconstruction in some areas. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 3 �River projects are increasingly challenging because they typically involve multiple stakeholders with diverse and often conflicting objectives. Projects that focus on a single goal, such as bank stabilization, can adversely affect physical processes and ecological functions, thereby degrading resources valued by other stakeholders. The total economic output from fishing in north central Colorado is $523 million annually (Southwick, 2014), which highlights the importance of fishing in the Colorado Front Range. River projects that focus only on the protection of infrastructure can result in degradation of a fishery and adversely impact those stakeholders that value fisheries. In addition to sport fish, there are many native fish species in the Colorado Front Range that are currently listed as state threatened or endangered due to habitat fragmentation and degradation. The flood recovery effort provided a rare opportunity to improve conditions for both sport fish and native species by elevating the ecological function of these river systems. Funding for Phase I recovery efforts was primarily provided by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) Emergency Watershed Protection Program (EWP). Funding for Phase 2 “non-exigent” or permanent repairs remains uncertain. Due to this uncertainty, many of the “temporary” fixes may become permanent features along rivers of the Front Range. Ecological lift and stream functions were not considered for most of these temporary or exigent projects. In many cases, the protection of property was the primary and only concern. We recognize the importance of protecting property and acknowledge the critical need for these efforts, but recommend alternative approaches to protecting property that minimize degradation of river ecosystems. It is possible to approach emergency flood response in a comprehensive manner that protects life and property as well as stream functions. Opportunities exist to incorporate principles of natural channel design into emergency flood response that will maximize the potential for post-flood stream recovery and stability. With some advance planning, overall project costs could be reduced, efficiency could be increased and long-term river stability and function would be improved. Some of the emergency work that was completed is concerning from an ecological standpoint. One of the major ecological concerns is related to “sweeping” the river to accommodate downstream construction. We understand this is a convenient means to work within the active channel, but diverting all of the flow has severe implications for all aquatic life downstream of the diversion point. CPW received numerous reports of dead or stranded fish during the peak of construction activities. We recommend using coffer dams and pumps to manage water in the immediate vicinity of construction as a means to accommodate in-stream construction while maintaining downstream flows. As a last resort, should a river need to be dried for in-stream construction, we recommend that water flows be reduced incrementally so that aquatic organisms can seek refuge in pools or other reaches with sufficient flow. Sediment transport and geomorphology were not priorities during emergency reconstruction. Channelization, abrupt changes in channel width, and inappropriate use of in-stream treatments may lead to issues with post-flood channel stability. In many instances, rivers were “temporarily” channelized to achieve design dimensions that accommodate a 5-year or 25-year flood. These temporary channels were typically trapezoidal and designed with the objective to lower the 100-year flood stage (Figure 1). We feel this is one of the greatest challenges facing post-flood stream restoration efforts. Can we restore these rivers to a more natural and sustainable condition when homes and businesses are built in the floodplain? Throughout history, we have attempted to modify and constrain rivers to achieve our engineering objectives. But the traditional approach to managing rivers, which focuses on containing all flows within engineered channels, not only leads to ecological degradation but also leads to severe channel adjustments during floods. These trapezoidal channels fail because they concentrate energy instead of dissipating it. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 4 �This issue with trapezoidal channel failure is illustrated by two contrasting reaches on Left Hand Creek (Figure 2). The upstream reach is an urban site near Kanemoto Park with a trapezoidal channel designed to convey flood flows. The Kanemoto reach experience substantial bank erosion during the flood. Bank erosion was so severe that the park’s swimming pool was undermined. The bank erosion observed at Kanemoto Park is a stark contrast to a downstream reach near Highway 119. The reach near Highway 119 was restored in 2002 using a multi-stage channel design with a functional floodplain, and almost no bank erosion was observed at this site during the flood (Figure 2). The stark contrast between these sites also extends to the cost of reconstruction and habitat restoration. The Kanemoto reach will require substantial investment to stabilize and restore the river channel, whereas the Highway 119 reach will require no funds for stabilization or restoration. This example illustrates the value of riparian floodplains for flood conveyance, channel stability, and protection of property and infrastructure. Figure 2. Pictures of the two locations on Left Hand Creek illustrating the value of multistage channel designs and functioning riparian corridors for flood conveyance and channel stability. There is a new paradigm in river engineering that embraces riparian floodplains as the most effective and sustainable means to convey floods and dissipate energy. Natural channels typically contain multiple stages that are inundated at different flows. For example, a four-stage channel includes (1) a low flow channel that maintains habitat during baseflows, (2) the bankfull or active channel, (3) a riparian bench to convey frequent floods, and (4) a flood-prone area between terraces to convey infrequent floods (Figure 3). We commend emergency work conducted by the CWCB, Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT), and Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) that incorporated multi-stage channel designs, but there are also many examples of trapezoidal, singlestage channels constructed after the flood. These trapezoidal channels create over-wide conditions with poor habitat quality. In nature, the trapezoidal channel often appears as an intermediate step following a disturbance that serves as a transition toward a stable end point. The length of time needed to reach a stable end point depends on a range of factors including geomorphic context, vegetation, and number of steps within a channel evolution sequence. Placing a stream channel into a trapezoidal form often results in an outcome that requires frequent maintenance, increased costs, land loss, and delayed channel evolution towards a more stable end point. During low flows, over-wide channels create shallow conditions that elevate water temperatures and decrease dissolved oxygen. In addition, over-wide conditions often induce aggradation of sediment because the channel no longer has the capacity to transport the incoming sediment load. During floods, over-wide channels concentrate Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 5 �energy, which increases water velocity and accelerates bank erosion that ultimately leads to channel instability. Multi-stage, or nested, channel designs provide a means to create naturally stable channels that convey floods and provide quality habitat for aquatic organisms. Figure 3. A four-stage channel design typical for a C4 stream type in a Valley Type VIII (Used with permission from D.L. Rosgen). Fish Passage at Diversion Structures Over 160 diversion structures were damaged during the 2013 floods. These structures typically consisted of grouted boulders or concrete walls that spanned the width of the channel (e.g., Figure 4). These structures were designed to create upstream backwater with enough differential head to maintain flows into irrigation ditches. Substantial investments have been made to develop the water delivery infrastructure that sustains the economy of the Colorado Front Range. Unfortunately, much of this infrastructure was developed decades ago without any consideration for dynamic river processes or ecological functions. The traditional diversion structure consisting of a low-head concrete dam and head-gate has many negative effects on stream functions. Diversion structures often create barriers to the upstream migration Figure 4. Diversion structure at the Watson of fish. Upstream migration is a vital component State Wildlife Area, Cache la Poudre River. of many species’ life histories. Trout are known to migrate upstream to find ideal spawning habitat and then move back downstream to over-winter in warmer, lower-velocity, and more productive waters. Barriers to migration, such as diversion or gradecontrol structures, can adversely impact populations of many fish species. Following the 2013 floods, CPW worked with the NRCS, CWCB, US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and FEMA to address issues with fish passage at diversion structures. These efforts culminated in a Fish Passage Workshop and Webinar that is currently hosted on the FEMA website at https://fema.connectsolutions.com/fishpassage/. This workshop provided information on different approaches to achieving fish passage at diversion structures, including design criteria for rock ramps, and alternative approaches to diversion structure design such as the cross-vane diversion structure Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 6 �(Figure 5). Hydraulic design criteria for fish passage structures are presented in Table 1. In addition to design criteria, CPW developed maps that prioritized streams for fish passage in the South Platte basin for both native fish species (Figure 6) and trout. For native fish species, Priority 1 refers to stream reaches with multiple native species currently present and historically high biodiversity, Priority 2 refers to stream reaches with a single native species currently present or historically high biodiversity, Priority 3 refers to stream reaches with a single native species historically present, and Priority 4 refers to all other streams. These maps identified St. Vrain Creek, Boulder Creek, South Platte River, Left Hand Creek, and Cache la Poudre River as the highest priority streams for native fish passage in the flood-impacted drainages. Table 1. Hydraulic design criteria for fish passage structures in the Colorado Front Range. EDF = Energy Dissipation Factor (Laiho, 2014). Species Velocity (ft/s) Minimum Depth Vertical Drop (ft) Turbulence (EDF) Assemblage (ft) Native minnows 1-2 0.5 0.0 <7 and darters Native dace and 3-4 0.5 0.0 <7 suckers Trout 3-6 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0 <7 St. Vrain Creek and Left Hand Creek are two of the last quality refuges for a number of state threatened and endangered fish species. Both of these streams were severely impacted by the flood, with devastating effects from Lyons through Longmont. Forty-three diversion structures were damaged on these two streams. As of March 2014, only two of the 43 damaged structures had incorporated fish passage during reconstruction efforts. Furthermore, fish passage designs for these structures were adapted from techniques used in the Pacific Northwest to pass salmon, such as the pool-weir fish ladder. The threatened and endangered native species in St. Vrain Creek and Left Hand Creek are adapted to the historical conditions in the rivers of the Colorado Front Range. As such, they can neither jump as high nor swim as fast as the salmon of the Pacific Northwest. Unfortunately, the two examples of fish passage on St. Vrain Creek are not ideal designs for passing small-bodied native fishes. Regardless, we commend the ditch companies that incorporated fish passage in the face of so many challenges. Multiple obstacles to incorporating fish passage, including permitting, funding, and historical designation, led most ditch companies to abandon fish passage as a viable option during the emergency reconstruction period. We feel it is important to address these issues so that future fish passage efforts are better prepared for these obstacles and, hopefully, more successful. Perhaps the greatest obstacle was related to 404 permitting from the Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE). Given the magnitude of damage, the ACOE did not want to impede reconstruction efforts. Ditch companies needed to be operational by April 1, 2014, and most were granted agricultural exemptions from the 404 process. Two types of agricultural exemptions can be used to satisfy permitting requirements for diversion structure re-construction: (1) a maintenance exemption which requires the diversion structure be rebuilt to its pre-existing condition, and (2) an irrigation maintenance exemption, which allows repairs to be completed outside the footprint of the original structure, such as incorporation of a fish passage structure. Under the maintenance exemption, any modification that changed the character, scope, or size of the original design would require a permit. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 7 �Figure 5. Conceptual example of a cross-vane diversion structure with irrigation head gate and sediment sluice (Rosgen, 2006). Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 8 �Figure 6. Priority streams for native fish passage affected by the 2013 floods. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 9 �Due to confusion regarding the two types of agricultural exemptions offered by the ACOE, many ditch companies and conservancy districts feared that incorporating fish passage into the diversion design would nullify their agricultural exemption and trigger the need for a nationwide or individual 404 permit. The ACOE Regional General Permit (RGP) No. 12 is another permit that applies to fish bypass structures in Colorado. Unfortunately, RGP No. 12 was not utilized during post-flood reconstruction process. We recommend that state and federal agencies work with the ACOE to clarify permitting options for rebuilding damaged diversion structures in a manner that accommodates fish passage without delaying reconstruction efforts. We recommend that RGP No. 12 be considered, possibly on a watershed scale, as a means to permit large scale fish passage efforts in a timely manner. Ideally, ditch companies and conservancy districts should be rewarded or incentivized to incorporate fish passage into their existing infrastructure in contrast to rebuilding their irrigation structures to the preexisting and outdated design. Funding concerns were the second major obstacle to building fish passable diversion structures. Due to programmatic constraints, FEMA would only fund the reconstruction of diversion structures to their pre-existing condition. Although it is more cost effective to incorporate fish passage during a major construction project, FEMA could not pay for fish passage if the structure did not have fish passage before the flood. This issue was further complicated because many threatened and endangered species in Colorado are not federally listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). If the brassy minnow or common shiner were federally listed as threatened or endangered, FEMA may have required that all diversion structures in priority reaches be fish passable. Colorado’s list of state threatened and endangered species is statutory in nature but lacks jurisdictional authority. Despite the lack of authority, we recommend that FEMA consider state-listed species when responding to similar natural disasters. Furthermore, Colorado should evaluate the feasibility of mandating fish passage in priority streams. Based on our experience from the September 2013 flood, there is not a readily available source of money for funding the implementation of fish passage at diversion structures. CWCB did offer low or no interest loans for ditch companies that wanted to incorporate fish passage into the design of their new structures. However, this incentive did not outweigh the permitting issues discussed above. To address limited funding for fish passage in Colorado, we recommend that the Species Conservation Trust Fund (SCTF) be used to establish an emergency flood response fund to address fish passage and conservation of native species. Ideally, this fund would support design and implementation of fish passage projects, as well as monitoring and research activities to evaluate and improve effectiveness of fish passage designs. These permitting and funding issues may have prevented ditch companies from considering alternative diversion designs recommended by the CWCB and CPW, such as the cross-vane diversion structure (Figure 4). These structures have not been widely used in the Colorado Front Range, but have been successfully and broadly applied in western Colorado to divert water and provide grade control while accommodating the passage of sediment, fish, and boats. Furthermore, these structures are often cheaper to build and repair than the traditional low-head concrete dam. These alternative structures may not have qualified for the agricultural exemption from the ACOE because they departed from the “character, scope, or size” of the original design under the maintenance exemption. However, the cross-vane structure is included under the Regional General Permit No. 12, which could expedite the permitting process for these structures in Colorado. We recommend that state and federal agencies work with the ACOE to identify permitting options for incorporating alternative diversion designs into emergency flood response. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 10 �The third issue that prevented a large scale effort to incorporate fish passage was related to the historical designation of diversion structures. Many diversion structures are considered “historical” by the State Historical Preservation Office (SHPO) due to the important role irrigation played in the development of the Colorado Front Range. SHPO is committed to maintaining the historical nature of these diversion structures, such that repairs to damaged structures must use the same type of grout that was used when the structure was originally built. There were concerns that incorporating fish passage would alter the historical character of these diversion structures. SHPO’s concerns about fish passage were acknowledged by FEMA and placed fish passage projects in a negative context. We recommend that issues with historical designation and fish passage at diversion structures be resolved in a way that incorporates fish passage without compromising historical integrity. State of the Fishery CPW is the lead agency responsible for fisheries management of public waters in Colorado. The primary tool that guides fisheries management in rivers is the multiple-pass electrofishing survey. Electrofishing is a common method used to sample fish populations and determine abundance, density, species composition, and fish condition. These surveys monitor fish populations and identify the impacts of flooding, wildfire, fish disease, and competition. Surveys are used to evaluate fishing regulations, the need for reintroduction via stocking, the need for habitat improvement, as well as the success of stream restoration projects. Electrofishing surveys are conducted regularly in all major rivers in the Colorado Front Range, and provide a valuable dataset for evaluating the effects of both the flood and emergency reconstruction efforts on these fisheries. In general, post-flood electrofishing surveys conducted in the Cache la Poudre River and Boulder Creek revealed limited impacts to the fishery and very limited channelization work. As a result, post-flood fishery assessments focused on the Big Thompson River and St. Vrain Creek, as large portions of these systems were physically altered and channelized to convey spring runoff and facilitate re-construction. Preliminary observations suggest that major river restoration would not be necessary in many locations had post-flood channels been left intact. Big Thompson Fishery Assessment CPW recently conducted a large-scale study in the Big Thompson River to document fishery resources for relicensing the Idlewilde Dam Hydroelectric Project with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Following the September 2013 floods, the Idlewilde Dam, all turbines, and pipeline were damaged beyond repair which led to the complete removal of the dam. Although the fisheries data no longer applied to the relicensing process, they provided valuable baseline information for assessing post-flood damages to aquatic resources. A total of nine sites, five completed as part of the FERC study in 2012 and four historical sampling sites, were resurveyed following the flood. Results of the comparative surveys are presented in Table 2, and historical survey data are included in Appendix B. These data suggest that post-flood channelization activities conducted to rebuild Highway 34 between Loveland and Estes Park had a more devastating impact on the Big Thompson fishery than the flood itself. Sections of river that were undisturbed by post-flood reconstruction contained 7% more trout per mile, on average, relative to pre-flood estimates. Sections of river that were drastically altered or channelized with heavy equipment during post-flood reconstruction contained 95% fewer trout, on average, relative to pre-flood conditions. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 11 �Channelization of the Big Thompson River reduced trout abundance by 90-100% at most locations surveyed (Table 2). For example, a section of the Big Thompson River at Drake contained 3,206 trout per river mile when surveyed in September 2012. No fish were found at this same location in November 2013 following channelization work (Figure 7). Farther upstream, near the Waltonia Bridge, trout abundance was reduced from 5,895 fish per mile in September 2012 to 130 fish per mile in October 2013. Sections of the Big Thompson River that were not artificially channelized fared much better in terms of trout abundance. The handicap fishing pier access site located near Highway 34 mile marker 72 yielded 3,769 trout per mile in October 2011. Following the 2013 flood, this same section contained 4,368 trout per mile, a 16% increase. Relatively little restoration work is needed for sections of the Big Thompson River where post-flood landscapes were not altered or channelized during post-flood reconstruction activities. St. Vrain Fishery Assessment In September 2013, the St. Vrain Watershed, including the North and South Forks of St. Vrain Creek, experienced a record flood event, reaching 100-year flood levels and surpassing 5001000 year levels in certain areas. Stream flows below the town of Lyons were estimated at 19,600 cfs (Houck, 2014), easily surpassing the previous record set in 1941. CPW initially conducted post-flood electrofishing surveys at Bohn Park, South Fork St. Vrain Creek, and Meadow Park, North Fork St. Vrain Creek, during October 2013. The monitoring reach through Bohn Park was subsequently channelized during February 2014. Following this channelization work, CPW re-surveyed both Bohn Park and Meadow Park to evaluate the effects of channel alterations on the fishery. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Figure 7. Post-flood photos of fish monitoring sites along the Big Thompson River showing the effects of channelization. Page 12 �Table 2. Total trout abundance (brown trout and rainbow trout) prior to and after the September 2013 floods at monitoring locations along the Big Thompson River. Location Miles Downstream of Olympus Dam Sample Date Abundance (trout/mile) Sample Date Abundance (trout/mile) Abundance (% change) Channel Alterations Below Olympus Dam 0.3 10/18/11 3013 10/30/13 5092 69% none Pre-Flood Post-Flood Chucks Place 3.5 10/18/10 6805 11/07/13 4730 -30% none Bridge at Glen Comfort 5.1 10/18/10 4358 11/08/13 3134 -28% none Handicap Ramp 8.8 10/19/11 3769 11/07/13 4368 16% none Waltonia Bridge 10.2 09/20/12 5895 10/08/13 130 -98% Channelized Drake 12.3 09/25/12 3206 11/07/13 0 -100% Channelized Upstream of Idlewilde Dam 13.7 09/17/12 5003 11/26/13 522 -90% Channelized Indian Meadow 14.8 09/25/12 2797 11/27/13 122 -96% Channelized Viestnz Smith Park 16.0 09/24/12 3104 11/27/13 243 -92% Channelized Decreased trout abundance was observed at both St. Vrain sites following the flood (Figure 8). Trout abundance at Bohn Park was previously estimated at 3,417 trout per mile in October 2005. Following the flood, trout abundance had decreased to 1,442 trout per mile in October 2013, representing a 58% decline for the previous estimate. Following post-flood channelization work, the electrofishing survey at Bohn Park yielded a single trout, or roughly nine trout per mile, representing a 99% decline in trout abundance between the post-flood and post-channelization surveys. Unlike Bohn Park, the historical survey site at Meadow Park on the North Fork St. Vrain was not channelized and remained relatively unaltered following the September 2013 flood. At this site, trout abundance decreased from 4,033 trout per mile in September 2009 to 1,659 trout per mile in October 2013, representing a 59% decline in the fishery due to the flood. However, survey results indicate that the fishery remained stable after the flood as 1,706 trout per mile were observed in February 2014. Although high flows observed during the flood impacted fisheries, these results suggest that drastic channel alterations during post-flood reconstruction further degraded fisheries in the Colorado Front Range. CPW will continue monitoring efforts to further evaluate the effects of both the 2013 floods and post-flood reconstruction on fishery resources in flood-impacted rivers. Stream Restoration Guidelines CPW recommends the following guidelines for stream restoration. These guidelines are general in nature, and may not be applicable in certain situations or appropriate for all stream reaches. The most important components of successful stream restoration projects are identification of appropriate goals, development of a design that addresses those goals, and selection of qualified and experienced contractors. The first step in any stream restoration project is identifying goals and objectives. Initial development of goals and objectives should involve all stakeholders affected by the project, although some goals may be weighted higher than others when finalizing a master plan for restoration. One important question that needs to be asked is, “to what condition are we restoring the river?” Restoration implies returning a river to its pre-development condition, which is often not feasible or desired by all stakeholders. We recommend setting stream restoration goals that strive to elevate the ecological function of rivers beyond their pre-flood condition in accordance with the Stream Functions Pyramid developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USFWS, and ACOE (Harman et al., 2012). Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 13 �Figure 8. Changes in total trout abundance at Bohn Park, South Fork St. Vrain Creek, following the flood and subsequent channelization compared to Meadow Park, North Fork St. Vrain Creek, which was not channelized. If specific restoration goals include enhancement of habitat for aquatic organisms, we recommend conducting a thorough analysis of potential factors that might be limiting populations (i.e., limiting factors analysis). Because aquatic organisms are sensitive to a range of factors that are directly and Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 14 �indirectly linked to river hydrology, hydraulics, geomorphology, physiochemical processes, and biological interactions, restoration projects that include goals specific to enhancing habitat are generally more complex than projects that aim to restore non-biological processes. Although monitoring should be a vital component of all restoration projects, projects that aim to enhance aquatic habitat should include monitoring as part of the process to evaluate whether project implementation was successful in meeting biological goals. Before-After/Control-Treatment (BACT) study designs are typically useful for evaluating the effectiveness of aquatic habitat enhancement methods or techniques. Stream Restoration Priorities: Protect Trout Unlimited promotes one of the more common themes for habitat conservation and stream restoration, which is to protect, reconnect, and restore. The most effective way to maintain functioning river systems is to protect streams or reaches that are not degraded. We believe that the 2013 flood actually improved stream functions in many locations. Examples of improved functions include newly established point bars that support deep pools at low flows while dissipating energy at high flows, channel narrowing that improved width-to-depth ratios, improved hyporheic connectivity and interstitial habitat from streambed mobilization, increased bedform diversity, recruitment of large wood and boulders that enhanced instream habitat, increased sinuosity that improved form roughness to dissipate energy at high flows, improved floodplain connectivity that will dissipate energy at high flows, and improved connectivity between upstream and downstream reaches. Prior to the flood, many stream beds were severely armored, meaning there was impaired connectivity between the active channel and hyporheic zone, which is the area beneath and alongside the streambed. This embeddedness, or armoring, degraded habitat for aquatic insects, small bodied native fishes, and spawning sport fish. Flows of the magnitudes observed during the 2013 floods provide flushing and channel maintenance benefits (Kondolf and Wilcock, 1996). Unfortunately, much of the improved habitat that resulted from the flood was not protected. Rather, this newly formed habitat was removed during channelization or used as road base. We understand that rebuilding infrastructure was the highest priority after the flood, but we feel it is important to also consider the many ecological and functional benefits that result from floods and to preserve those to the fullest extent possible without endangering life or property. Another common observation in the post-flood response was the removal of large woody debris (LWD). There are many studies that document the importance of wood in natural river channels. Some of the benefits of LWD include energy dissipation at the channel boundary, storage of sediment and organic matter on the streambed, increased habitat complexity, and retention of organic matter and nutrients (Wohl, 2011). We understand there are many instances in which large wood was intermingled with trash or hazardous materials, and we support the removal of this “debris”. We also understand that LWD can accumulate at bridges and create issues with flood conveyance. In a recent study, Johnson and Scheeder (2011) suggest that the best solution for debris management at bridges lies within stream restoration practices, particularly bank stabilization. However, many of the emergency bank stabilization techniques used after the flood, including rip-rap and jersey barriers, adversely affect stream functions and may not be sustainable. Channel evolution models demonstrate that channelized rivers are not stable and that channelization will lead to degradation and widening followed by aggradation and further widening (Figure 9). Rip-rap is commonly used in an attempt to prevent channel evolution from Classes II-III to Classes IV-V, but riprap can become mobilized or undermined during floods, as we witnessed during the 2013 floods. We Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 15 �hope that bank stabilization measures can be utilized in a manner that supports stream functions, while both creating quality habitat and reducing debris accumulation at bridges. There are many stream restoration techniques, such as toe-wood or log-vanes, which utilize LWD to stabilize banks and create habitat. It is vital that these techniques be used in the appropriate geomorphic context and meet design specifications. Examples of these techniques can be found at the ACOE website under Regional General Permit No. 12. Abbe and Brooks (2011) is another resource on geomorphic, engineering, and ecological considerations for using LWD in river restoration. Wohl et al. (in preparation) is also a valuable resource for analyzing the risk associated with large wood in streams of the Colorado Front Range. Figure 9. The Simon channel evolution model (Harman et al., 2012). Stream Restoration Priorities: Reconnect Habitat connectivity is vital component of a functioning river or stream. There are three dimensions of habitat connectivity: longitudinal, lateral, and vertical (Figure 10). Longitudinal connectivity relates to connectivity between upstream and downstream reaches, lateral connectivity implies connectivity between the active channel and floodplain, and vertical connectivity pertains to connectivity between the active channel and hyporheic zone. Despite aforementioned issues with fish passage, re-connecting upstream and downstream reaches should remain an important goal for stream restoration along the Colorado Front Range. Longitudinal connectivity allows fish and other organisms to seek habitat conditions located upstream or downstream that are necessary for them to successfully complete their life history strategies. Over a typical life cycle, fish seek out a variety of habitat conditions depending on their life stage, season, and environmental variability, among other factors. Should their local Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 16 �habitat patch become degraded from land use, point-source pollution, or climate change, fish and other organisms require access to habitat conditions found upstream or downstream. Lateral connectivity is also important for fish, as many species utilize the low velocities found on inundated floodplains for both refuge and migration. Therefore, it is important to design channels that inundate their floodplains on a frequent basis, every 1-2 years. This multi-stage channel design supports a variety of river functions, including channel maintenance, exchange of nutrients and sediment, healthy riparian corridors, groundwater recharge, and energy dissipation during floods. Figure 10. The three dimensions of habitat connectivity in a functioning river system. Stream Restoration Priorities: Restore Guidelines for improving stream functions are detailed in the Stream Functions Pyramid (Figure 11; Harman et al., 2012). The Stream Functions Pyramid is a simple, conceptual framework based on the premise that all streams share common characteristics and functions. Hydrology and hydraulic processes provide the foundation for all stream functions, followed by geomorphologic, physiochemical, and biological functions. The pyramid captures the hierarchical nature of these functions and is a valuable tool for conducting stream assessments, developing project goals and objectives, and identifying approaches to restoration. We encourage state and federal agencies that are responsible for emergency reconstruction to consider the Stream Functions Pyramid when conducting exigent repairs after a major flood. By utilizing approaches to emergency flood response that support stream functions and ecological lift, we could not only improve the condition of our rivers, but also reduce costs associated with “permanent” stream restoration efforts following a major flood. Appendix A provides a general assessment of function-based parameters prior to the flood, after the flood, and following emergency reconstruction. This assessment was based on site visits to the Cache la Poudre River, Big Thompson River, St. Vrain Creek, Left Hand Creek, and South Boulder Creek. Although quantitative metrics were not used for this assessment, this qualitative assessment is representative of post-flood changes to function-based parameters in the Colorado Front Range. To summarize, the following parameters were improved by the flood: floodplain connectivity, flow Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 17 �dynamics, groundwater/surface water exchange, sediment transport capacity, large woody debris transport and storage, channel evolution, bedform diversity, bed material characterization, water temperature and dissolved oxygen, nutrients and organic carbon, and landscape connectivity. All of these parameters were subsequently degraded to a lower functioning state in reaches where emergency reconstruction took place. Figure 11. Functions and parameters associated with the each level of the Stream Functions Pyramid (Harman et al., 2012). Funding for post-flood stream restoration remains uncertain, which will likely limit the extent and quality of post-flood stream restoration projects. Local funding sources for stream restoration projects, such as the Fishing Is Fun program and the South Platte Basin Roundtable, do not have sufficient resources to fund the scale of stream restoration now needed in the Colorado Front Range. The Colorado General Assembly recently passed Senate Bill 14-179 to establish a “Stream Restoration Account” within the CWCB Flood and Drought Response Fund. The bill appropriates funding for the CWCB to implement the grant program, and transferred $2.5 million into the program for watershed cleanup and stream restoration. CWCB grants required a 50% match, and applications were due by July 1, 2014. Typical stream restoration costs can range from $150,000-$300,000 per mile of stream. Preliminary post-flood stream restoration costs for the Big Thompson basin alone have been estimated at $60 million. Federal funding could become available through the NRCS Emergency Watershed Protection (EWP) program, but this funding is contingent upon congressional approval and will require a 25% match from local sponsors. Stream restoration under the EWP will focus on bank stabilization and returning streams to their pre-existing condition, but there is some potential to improve stream Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 18 �reaches over their previous condition. We strongly recommend that the CWCB grants and EWP program utilize a functional-based approach for Phase II restoration projects and strive to improve conditions beyond their pre-flood, degraded condition. If streams must be returned to a pre-existing condition, we recommend that they be returned to their post-flood condition rather than their pre-flood condition. Despite potential issues with funding and bureaucratic constraints, the permitting limitations that hindered fish passage efforts should not hinder stream restoration efforts. CPW has worked with the ACOE to develop Regional General Permit No. 12 for aquatic habitat improvement in stream channels in Colorado. This permit includes a list of authorized activities and examples of in-stream structural designs. The permit also includes a list of general conditions and best management practices. We recommend that Regional General Permit No. 12 be utilized for post-flood stream restoration projects, and hope that it provides a means to expedite the 404 permitting process. Summary of Recommendations We recommend that the following points be addressed or incorporated into future flood responses. The points are divided by topic, including recommendations for emergency in-stream construction, fish passage, and stream restoration. Recommendations for Post-Flood Emergency Reconstruction             Utilize coffer dams and pumps to manage water in the vicinity of in-stream construction activities instead of drying long segments of river. If the entire river must be dried prior to in-stream construction, gradually decrease flows so that aquatic organisms can seek refuge in pools or downstream reaches. Develop or utilize existing criteria for identifying large woody debris that can be left in the channel. If large woody debris must be removed from the channel, stockpile the wood nearby for use in future stream restoration projects. Clarify definitions of “debris” so that large wood and boulders are not included under the same category as hazardous materials, building materials, or trash. Work with FEMA and NRCS to indentify efficient means to fund exigent projects that improve stream function over the pre-existing condition. Extend the length of service for emergency FEMA employees beyond 120 days to minimize inconsistent priorities and processing of information due to high-turnover rates. Reduce stream restoration costs by approaching emergency construction efforts in a comprehensive manner that minimizes disturbances to geomorphology and ecology. Develop conceptual channel dimensions based on hydrologic analysis, such as regional curves, prior to the next flood to expedite restoration designs. Incorporate multi-stage channel dimensions and bedform-spacing into post-flood channel work to place the river on a trajectory towards dynamic equilibrium between sediment supply and stream flows. Improve understanding of river ecology and stream functions among federal agencies, state agencies, and contractors working on emergency reconstruction projects. Develop a central “clearing house” for information pertinent to reconstruction efforts that allows for streamlined communications between multiple agencies, contractors, and stakeholders. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 19 � Identify roles and responsibilities for government agencies that are based on the strengths and resources of each agency. Recommendation for Incorporating Fish Passage into Emergency Flood Response        Identify priority streams for fish passage prior to the next flood. Develop fish passage design criteria for priority streams. Develop a process for addressing fish passage at diversion structures that is endorsed by the ACOE, FEMA, and SHPO. This process should address funding and permitting constraints, including the historical designation of diversion structures. Utilize the Species Conservation Trust Fund to establish an emergency flood-response fund that could be used for fish passage and post-flood habitat conservation. Improve awareness of alternative diversion structure designs that accommodate fish passage and improve stream functions, such as the cross-vane diversion structure. Incorporate fish screens into diversion designs to reduce the frequency of fish entrainment in irrigation ditches. This will require addressing funding issues related to pre-existing conditions. Improve understanding among stakeholders of aquatic organisms found in Colorado streams and rivers, including the economic value of sport fish populations and ecological significance of native species. Recommendations for Stream Restoration           Protect functioning stream reaches, improve habitat connectivity, and restore degraded streams to a higher functioning state. Utilize the Stream Functions Pyramid to develop project goals and objectives. Conduct a limiting factors analysis to evaluate project goals and objectives and inform selection of habitat treatments. Utilize functional floodplains to convey flows and dissipate energy during floods. Develop multi-stage channel designs based on the current hydrologic and sediment regimes. Design channels to achieve sediment continuity. Incorporate large woody materials into stream restoration designs to improve geomorphic function. Utilize post-restoration monitoring to evaluate the effectiveness of stream restoration and habitat enhancement projects. Federal, state, and local interest groups should advocate for congressional funding for Phase II stream restoration projects. Utilize the ACOE Regional General Permit No. 12 for permitting post-flood stream restoration projects in Colorado. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 20 �References Abbe, T. and A. Brooks. 2011. Geomorphic, engineering, and ecological considerations when using wood in river restoration. Pages 419–451 in Simon A., S.J. Bennett, J.M. Castro, eds. Stream Restoration in Dynamic Fluvial Systems: Scientific Approaches, Analyses, and Tools. American Geophysical Union. Houck, K. 2014. CDOT/CWCB Hydrology Investigation, Phase One – 2013 Flood Peak Flow Determinations. Watershed & Flood Protection Section, Colorado Water Conservation Board. 8 pp. Harman, W., R. Starr, M. Carter, K. Tweedy, M. Clemmons, K. Suggs, C. Miller. 2012. A Function-Based Framework for Stream Assessment and Restoration Projects. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, Washington, DC EPA 843-K-12-006. Johnson, P.A. and S.A. Sheeder. 2011. Controlling debris at bridges. Pages 385-397 in Simon A., S.J. Bennett, J.M. Castro, eds. Stream Restoration in Dynamic Fluvial Systems: Scientific Approaches, Analyses, and Tools. American Geophysical Union. Kondolf, G.M. and P.R. Wilcock. 1996. The flushing flow problem: defining and evaluating objectives. Water Resources Research 32(8): 2589-2599. Laiho, D.R. 2014. Engineering river diversions to include fish passage. Presented at the Fish Passage Workshop and Webinar, Northern Water Headquarters, Berthoud, Colorado. Rosgen, D.L. 2006. Cross-vane, w-weir, and j-hook vane structures: description, design and application for stream stabilization and river restoration. Wildland Hydrology, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado. Southwick Associates. 2014. The economic contributions of outdoor recreation in Colorado: a regional and county-level analysis. Fernandina Beach, Florida. 35 pp. Wohl, E. 2011. Seeing the forest for the trees: wood in stream restoration in the Colorado Front Range, United States. Pages 339–418 in Simon A., S.J. Bennett, J.M. Castro, eds. Stream Restoration in Dynamic Fluvial Systems: Scientific Approaches, Analyses, and Tools. American Geophysical Union. Wohl, E., K. Bestgen, B. Bledsoe, K. Fausch, M. Gooseff, and N. Kramer. In preparation. Management of large wood in streams of Colorado’s Front Range: a risk analysis based on physical, biological, and social factors. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 21 �Appendix A Comparison of function-based parameters prior to the 2013 flood, after the flood, and after emergency reconstruction. Level & Category Parameters Pre-flood condition Post-flood condition Post-emergency reconstruction 1 - Hydrology Channel-forming discharge Flood frequency Significant decrease from historic range Magnitude of floods has decreased from historic range Not affected Not affected Not affected Not affected Flow duration Duration of flows has decreased from historic range Not affected Not affected Floodplain connectivity Reduced connectivity from past channelization Flow dynamics Degraded connectivity from channelization and streambank armoring Degraded flow dynamics from channelization Groundwater/surface water exchange Velocity, shear stress, and stream power decreased from hydrologic alteration Reduced exchange due to water development & channelization Improved connectivity due to channel forming flows during the flood Improved flow dynamics due to more natural channel morphology Substantial exchange of groundwater and surface water from floodplain inundation Sediment transport capacity Reduced capacity from water development Large woody debris transport and storage Reduced transport capacity and storage Channel evolution Ongoing degradation and widening Bank migration/lateral stability Prevalence of armored streambanks Riparian vegetation Reduced cottonwood recruitment and overall function Bed form diversity Degraded from reduced frequency of channel maintenance flows 2 - Hydraulics 3 - Geomorphology Colorado Parks and Wildlife Improved capacity from lower width-to-depth ratio, improved flow dynamics, and removal of low-head dams Significant increase in storage and potential for future transport Improved sinuosity, width-todepth ratios, and floodplain connectivity Substantial bank erosion and channel avulsion Scoured or buried vegetation in many locations. Sediment deposition created favorable conditions to re-establishing riparian vegetation. Improved diversity from channel maintenance flows Degraded exchange of groundwater and surface water from channelization and streambank armoring Degraded capacity from reconstruction of low-head dams and channelization Significant decrease in storage and potential for future transport Returned to degraded, channelized stage of channel evolution Eroding banks stabilized with rip-rap and grout Channelization degraded lateral connectivity, which adversely affected riparian vegetation. Reduced diversity from channelization and in-stream construction Page 22 �4 - Physiochemical Bed material characterization Increasing presence of fines and embeddedness Reduced embeddedness and improved hyporheic conditions Water quality toxicants Degraded from land use and emerging contaminates of concern Increased temperatures from water development and overwide conditions Sewage and hazardous materials introduced to channel Water quality dissolved oxygen Decreased DO from increased temperatures Nutrients Elevated nutrients from wastewater treatment facilities, agricultural fertilizers, and atmospheric deposition Reduced temperatures (see above) and improved bedform diversity likely to increase DO Nutrient exchange with floodplain Organic carbon Removal of LWD likely reduced amount of organic carbon Microbial communities Water quality temperature 5 - Biology Newly scoured pools and narrower channels likely to reduce water temperatures Instream construction likely impacted stream bed and degraded hyporheic zone Sewage lines repaired and hazardous materials removed Channelization created overwide, shallow conditions that elevate water temperatures. Poor floodplain connectivity reduces riparian water storage and return flows. Elevated temperatures from channelization likely to reduce DO Channelization reduces floodplain connectivity and subsequent nutrient exchange between riparian areas and the active channel Uncertain Improved carbon exchange with floodplain and recruitment of wood Uncertain Removal of wood from the channel reduces the amount of available organic carbon Removal of large wood decreased available nutrients and organic carbon which adversely impacts primary production Macrophyte communities Uncertain Likely scoured Benthic macroinvertebrate communities Negatively impacted by streambed armoring Improved hyporheic connectivity, but populations likely decreased due to streambed disturbance Removal of large wood decreased available nutrients which adversely impacts primary production Instream construction likely impacted stream bed which degraded hyporheic connectivity. Removal of large wood decreased available nutrients and organic carbon which adversely impacts primary production Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 23 �Fish communities Impaired due to altered hydrology, whirling disease, instream barriers, and channelization Decreased abundance was observed at most sites, although some sites exhibited increased abundance. The highest observed decline was -59%. Landscape connectivity Disconnected stream reaches in the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical dimensions. Improved connectivity in the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical dimensions. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Dramatically decreased abundance (-90 to -100%) was observed in channelized reaches. Widespread reports of fish mortality during the peak of construction activities Degraded connectivity in the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical dimensions Page 24 �Appendix B Trout abundance data (#/mile) for monitoring sites along the Big Thompson River. Notes: * denotes locations where post-flood channelization occurred in 2013; scale for abundance varies among sites. Colorado Parks and Wildlife Page 25 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Aquatics Research Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Post-Flood Recovery Assessment and Stream Restoration Guidelines for the Colorado Front Range Description An account of the resource Report by Eric E. Richer, Matt C. Kondratieff, and Benjamin D. Swigle (November 19, 2014)<br /><strong><br />Abstract:</strong><br />Severe flooding impacted rivers and streams in the Colorado Front Range during September 2013. The flooding had devastating effects on communities and infrastructure, but had many beneficial effects on river ecosystems and stream functions. Flooding is a natural component of river systems that is vital for many ecological and physical processes. Following the flood, rebuilding infrastructure was given top priority and permitting processes were suspended or expedited to facilitate reconstruction activities. In many cases, emergency reconstruction activities led to degradation of stream functions and aquatic habitat. Degradation was often associated with the creation of trapezoidal and armored channels. Initial monitoring following the flood showed variable impacts to fish populations, with changes in trout abundance ranging from -58% to +69% at sites that were severely impacted by the flood but not further altered during emergency reconstruction. Monitoring sites that underwent substantial channel alterations during emergency reconstruction had an average change in trout abundance of -95%. Floods may provide an opportunity to improve a variety of stream functions related to channel stability, flood conveyance, geomorphology, water quality, and habitat connectivity. However, programmatic constraints at both the state and federal level limit opportunities to improve rivers beyond their preflood condition. Addressing permitting and funding constraints prior to the next major flood could greatly improve the efficiency and effectiveness of emergency flood response while reducing long-term maintenance and stream restoration costs. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource <a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/534">Richer, Eric E.</a> <a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/533">Kondratieff, Matthew C.</a> Swigle, Benjamin D. Date Created Date of creation of the resource. 2014-11-19 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/NoC-NC/1.0/">No Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Only</a>