https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/cdcc0dc72d84d2b46a54191bf08f5e97.pdf 34e3aa3f78fee18a22d5fd303d15aea3 PDF Text Text 7 Outdoor Facts pPUBLISHEDDB H BY THE COLORADO GAME, FISH and DEPT. E, FISt-1 rid PARKS ARKS DE co AOO G Number umber 11 Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet UPLANDD GAME GAME BIRD BIRD FACTS FACTS UPLA Questions commonly asked asked about our upland game Questions birds How much do they weigh? How How many birds include: How How llong eggs do they lay? How ong does it take the eggs to How many broods broods will be produced produced each seaseahatch? How Do they pair pair off off when when they breed? breed? son? Do Answers questions are are given in Answers to tthe he first first three three questions Name Bird Name of Bird Wild turkey Wild turkey Ring-necked pheasant Ring-necked pheasant Scaled quail quail Scaled Bobwhite quail quail Bobwhite Gambe1 tI ss quail Gambel quail Chukar partridge Chukar partridge Greater prairie chicken Greater prairie chicken Lesser prairfl prairi, chicken chicken Lesser Sage grouse grouse .::. 1 Sage Sharp-tailed grouse grouse Sharp-tailed Blue grouse -Blue grouse White-tailed ptarmigan White-tailed ptarmigan Band-tailed pigeon Band-tailed pigeon Mourning dove Mourning dove 1..1 ll tabular form below. Data were part tabular were obtained in part through personal studies studies and by those those of other other Dethrough personal partment inforpartment game bird bird biologists, biologists, combined with inforvariety of of technical technical reports reports and and mation from a wide variety publications. Because of of the combination publications. Because combination of published published and unpublished data, reference material material is and data, lengthy reference here. not included here. Average Average Clutch Clutch Size Size Incubation Incubation Period Period (in Days) Days) 8-14 814 7.,.15 7-15 9-16 916 12-16 1216 10-14 10-14 11-14 11-14 8-14 8-14 8-14 814 7- 9 8.,.15 8-1 5 7-10 7-12 1 28 23-24 23-24 21-22 21-22 23-24 23-24 21-24 21-24 23-24 23 - 24 21-24 21-24 21-24 21 - 24 25- 27 25-27 21-24 21-24 21-22 21-22 21-22 21-22 18-20 1820 14 2 Average Average Weight Weight Males Males Females Females Ozs.. Lbs. 0zs. Lbs. 0zs Ozs. 16 16 2 1 2 1 4 1 2 8.0 14.0 14.0 7.0 6.3 6.0 10.0 10.0 3.0 13.0 13.0 8.0 2.0 13.0 13 .0 14.2 14.2 13.1 13.1 4.6 10 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1.0 44.0 .0 6.5 66.1 .1 5.7 4.0 11.0 11 .0 5.0 10.0 13.0 14.0 14 .0 12.5 12.8 12 .8 44.4 .4 Cocks may weigh six pounds more during during breeding season. Cocks may weigh pounds or more breeding season. answer to the last last questions, questions, all upland game In answer birds Colorado will produce no more more than one birds in Colorado brood each season, season, with the exception of of the mourning dove which may rear rear as many as three. three. It is true dove true that more clutches clutches all upland game birds birds will lay two or more of initial nests nests are are destroyed. destroyed. Once a clutch of eggs if initial hatches successfully, successfully, however, females females rereof eggs hatches of the main with the brood brood and, with the exception exception of mourning dove, do do not attempt attempt to rear mourning rear a second brood brood season. during that particular particular season. All quail, partridge, partridge, doves and pigeons listed listed in the table table above are are monogamous, or pair offto breed. pair off to breed. grouse, The wild turkey, turkey, ring-necked ring-necked pheasant pheasant and the grouse, including ptarmigan, are polygamous or promiscuous including ptarmigan, are promiscuous their breeding male may service service in their breeding behavior behavior and one one male several to many females. females. several Assembled from published published and Assembled from unpublished information. information. unpublished Wayne W. Sanclfort Sandfort Wayne W. Research Chief Game Research 1965 July, 1965 �~00 Facts Outdoor ct PUBt..lSHED THE PUBLISHED av BY THE COLORADO COLORADO GA.ME, GAME, FISH ond and PARKS PARKS DEPT DEPT. Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number2 Number 2 CARE CARE OF OF BIG BIG GAME GAME HIDES HIDES One One of the basic basic obligations of the Game, Fish, and Parks Parks Department Department is to offer information information and and service service to Colorado's Colorado's sportsmen sportsmen wherever wherever it is practical. practical. There are many ways this can be done. One One small small way ctive is by helping way we we might go go toward this obje objective to prevent prevent undue undue waste of of the game. Department Department personnel sonnel should should take every opportunity to spread spread information on on the care care and use of the game taken by sportsmen. sportsmen. It is fact that aa great is aa known knownfact great many hunters hunters do not make full use of of the game they kill. Often Often usable meat is left to waste in the field, meat is lost, lost, or it spoils spoils due due to neglect neglect or from not knowing knowing how how to take care care of of it. A A small small folder, folder, "Handling Your Big Game Game Kill" Kill" is available to sportsmen sportsmen to help prevent prevent meat losses. losses. The hides of our big game animals animals are are valuable and o yed and disand useful too, but many hides are are destr. destr,oyed discarded carded because because hunter hunterss do do not realize realize their value, know how how to handle and andpreserve skins. and do not know p r eserve the skins. Here is aa list eserving hides list of of simple simple steps steps for pr preserving until they can be brought brought in for tanning. until Skins Skins may be preserved preserved by by three three methods: Drying--Refrigerationing- - Refrige ration - -Salting. - Salting. Salting Salting is the easiest, easiest, most convenient convenient,, and and safest safest way. ry little. way. Salt is cheap and you you ueed need ve very little. In In skinning, avoid avoid cutting the skin. Remove Remove as much of of the fat as possible possible so that the salt salt can penetrate penetrate the skin. skin. Lay bide hide out flat and rub salt salt into flesh side, paypay- ing particular particular atteution attention to the corners corners and edges. Fold edges in and roll roll into bundle. bundle. If skins are are to be shipped, shipped, tag and and bundle so so that it can be identified; wrap in waxed waxed paper, paper, then cover with burlap or place in aa box. box. For best results, ring skin in for tanning as results, bbring as soon as possible. possible. " Be sure sure to attach attach tanning instructions instructions and specify specify color skins are are to be tanned. (There are are five colors: colors: Pearl Pearl gray, cream, cream, suntan, chocolate brown, and and black.) blaCk.) Do r y in folded or rolled Do not allow hides to ddry rolled concondition as it will result result in cracked cracked grain. grain. If it should be necessary necessary to keep skins for any any length of time, stretch stretch or tack salted salted skins indoors or in shade so that they will ry will not ddry wrinkled or c.rumpled. crumpled. (The (The sun will parch parch or greaseburn skin.) grease-burn skin.) Skins ate more Skins that that have have been refrigerated refrigerated deterior deteriorate rapidly than those left under normal normal temperatemperatures. hould always be salted tures. Skins Skins sshould salted after after taking out of of refrigeration. refrigeration. One average average size deer deer hide will produce th.ree three or four One pairs pairs of gloves. It will take three three to four deer bides hides to make a buck skin jacket. jacket. A A jacket made of of elk hide will require require one one and and aa half to two two average average size size elk skins. Anonymous Authorship Anonymous Reissued from original Reissued July, 1965 1965from original dated October 15, 15, 1956 1956 �l]_t F Outdoor Facts t I , if ... :. . PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED Y THE COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO Numberer 3 Numb Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet WILD TURKEY HUNTING TECHNIQUES TECHNIQUES WILD T URKEY HUNTING The first first step a hunter for wild turkeys turkeys should The area where turkeys are ranging. take is to locate an area turkeys are Since turkeys turkeys are are creatures follow Since creatures of habit, they follow well-defined patterns patterns of feeding and watering well-defined watering that can hunters. They normally normally leave their be used by by hunte r s. They their roost roost dawn, and fe feeding their first first activity of the at gray dawn, eding is their day. Since the digestive digestive processes processes have continued roosting, they are are hungry in the morning. TurTurwhile roosting, one-half hour to two two hours in the keys will feed from one-half mornings, depending on abundance of food food availavailmornings, on the abundance able. Most of their their food food at this time of year year is rather rather able, dry, consisting consisting of of grain, grain, dried dried berries berries and fruits, fruits, and grass seeds. seeds. It takes considerable water water to digest digest grass takes considerable these dry foods naturally go go to water water from these foods so they naturally area. After the watering watering period period there there is a the feeding area. time. On loafing time. On warm days they will loaf in the On cold days they spend this time in the open open shade. On sun. Wild turkey turkey hunting methods come under under two main Wild headings: Still hunting, and and Cross-country Cross-country hunting. Still hunting m may done in several several ways. The ay be done himself near near a feeding area area or hunter can conceal bimself watering let the turkeys turkeys come within shootwatering place and let range. Often the turkey's turkey's location is revealed by ing range. revealed by birds. Usually a mature mature hen calls calls the the call of the birds. flock to a feeding area area or watering watering place. place. Then the birds answer. answer. In this way the location poults or older older birds this way of tthe birds is quite simple. calling is he birds simple. Once Ones this calllng heard the hunter turkey call (there are are heard hunter may use a turkey many types) to lead the birds birds within shooting range. properly·used drive the turturIf the call is not properly ·used it will drive instead of bringing bringing them to the hunter. It keys away instead takes a little little practice practice to talk talk ''turkey "turkey talk.'' talk." talces probably is the The Cross-country: Cross-country hunting method probably sporting method of of hunting turkeys. turkeys. Within a most sporting known ranging area area the hunter stalks stalks or walks through known contacts and flushes flushes a flock of turkey range until he contacts turkeys. Turkeys Turkeys are are not easy approach either either in turkeys. easy to approach open or timbered timbered range. range. If the hunter hunter is not careful careful in his approach approach he will flush the turkeys turkeys ahead of him seeing or hearing By observing closely without seeing bearing them. By observing closely it may be noted that the places places where turkeys turkeys have recently fed will be damp. The leaves leaves or needles recently needles will freshly raked, and the ground wet underneath. underneath. be freshly indicates the turkeys turkeys have fed in the area This indicates area within last few minutes. The hunter can even find the the last few minutes. direction the birds are moving by this this sign. From direction birds are From there approach to any any rising rising ground should be there the approach with caution. When When the birds are seen seen the hunter hunter birds are rapidly, causing should walk toward the flock rapidly, causing the birds to fly. Then sit sit down down and and remain remain quiet until the birds turkeys calling to get back together. together. Then the turkeys begin calling hunter can use a call, call, and call the birds birds back within hunter One caution should be observed--the observed--the shooting range. One remain very still still until he is ready ready hunter should remain to shoot. When When turkeys turkeys are are getting together together they are very cautious. A movement of the hand are hand or a would cause the turkeys turkeys to fly. Any Any shift in position would times should be very slow and movement at such times deliberate. deliberate. Martin Burget Burget Martin Biologist (since deceased) deceased) Senior Game Biologist Reissued July, 1965 1965 from original Reissued original 1, 1956 1956 dated November 1, �Ol_1tcloo1~ Outdoor Facts I~ PUBLISH E D BV PUBLISHED BY THE THE ,: COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. COLORADO Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number4 Number 4 PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY RATES, RATES, AGE AGE CLASSES, CLASSES, AND AND SEX SEX RATIOS RATIOS OF BEAVERS OF SPRING-CAUGHT SPRING-CAUGHT BEAVERS IN IN COLORADO COLORADO For For a period period of three three consecutive consecutive years, years, Beaver Beaver Investigations Investigations Project Project personnel personnel examined a total total of 394 female beavers beavers taken during during spring spring trapping trapping in northern northern and northeastern northeastern Colorado Colorado at at elevations elevations both above above and and below 5000 5000 ft. Compilation and analysis sis of the records records from these examinations examinations have have rerevealed several several points of interest interest from the standpoint of beaver beaver management. management. Of Of the total total of 394 females, females, 281 281 were taken at at altialtitudes above above 5000 5000 ft. ft. and 113 113 below 5000 5000 ft. ft. A A total total of 129 129 were were either either pregnant pregnant or postpartum postpartum (young (young already born). The pregnancy rate for the entire rate Jor entire samsample, therefore, therefore, was 33 33 percent. percent. On On an an altitude altitude basis basis the pregnancy rate rate above above 5000 5000 ft. was 31 31 percent percent while below 5000 5000 ft. it was 37 37 percent. percent. Among Among mature mature females females the pregnancy pregnancy rate rate was 75 75 percent percent for for both both altitudinal altitudinal zones. The comparison comparison of of these these pregnancy pregnancy rates rates shows that that aa greater greater proportion proportion of the females females 5000 ft. ft. were were mature. mature. The average average mnnnu"mtaken below 5000 ber of young per ber per litter litter (based on embryo embryo counts from from pregnant females females and placental placental scar scar counts counts from pregnant post-partum females) was 2. 2.7 5000 ft. and and 4.4 postpartum females) 7 above 5000 below 5000 5000 ft. ft. below The average average number of young young per per litter litter has reremained mained constant constant or nearly nearly so so during the three three spring spring .seasons seasons for which data have been recorded. recorded. The rate has fluctuated fluctuated from year year to year year durdurpregnancy rate same period. period. This This fluctuation is is believed believed to ing this this same be due due to the chances inherent inherent in trapping, trapping, rather rather than to-year differences than to actual yearyear-to-year differences in pregnancy pregnancy rates. rates. It has been demonstrated demonstrated on on several several occasions occasions trapping does not give aa true true random sample sample of of that trapping population. This is especially especially true true in in regard regard to the population. differences differences in in trap trap susceptibility susceptibility among among various various age classes. year- old beavers beavers classes. It is well known known that twotwo-year-old do aa great gives great deal of of moving in the spring. spring. This gives them greater this greater opportunity to visit visit trap trap sets, sets, and this susceptibility figures. susceptibility is is reflected reflected in the age class class figures. Roughly year- olds as yearRoughly twice as many twotwo-year-olds as oneone-yearolds olds were caught. Obviously, Obviously, this is is aa biiased biased population sample, sample, since since there there cannot cannot at at all times times be twice as year--olds in any as many many two-year-olds two-year-olds as as oneone-year-olds animal population. Also, twoyear-olds: and mature mature two-year-olds beavers beavers made made up approximately approximately the same same proportion proportion of the catch catch which again again is an an W1true untrue ]picture picture of the population. The The age class class figures figures are are useful useful only as year-to-year year-to-year trends, trends, and and are are not useful useful as actual actual population figures, figures. Bias is is also exhibited exhibited in the sex ratios ratios of the trapped trapped beavers, beavers, but is not not as as easily easily explained, explained. Below 5000 5000 ft. the sex ratio ratio was 86 86 males: males: 100 100 females; females; above 5000 5000 ft. the ratio ratio was 77 77 males: males: 100 100 fefewhile above males. There is no reason reason to believe believe that females males. that females are are more more susceptible susceptible to traps traps than are are males; males; on the other hand, there there is is no no reason reason to belieive believe that there there other are are always always more more females females than males males in a beaver beaver much llarger sample is is available available population. Until aa much arger samplei for analysis, analysis, a sex ratio ratio of of 100;100 100:100 will be assumed assumed for in making management management recommendations. recommendations. On popuOn this basis basis the calculated calculated average average annual population increase increase was 42 42 percent percent above 5()00 5000 ft. and 81 81 percent percent below 5000 5000 ft. Since Since these these rates rates of increase increase are derived derived from embryo and placental placental scar scar counts, are the figures juvenile figures do do not include include calculation calculation of juvenile mortality. mortality. William H. Rutherford Rutherford Associate Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher Reissued Reissued July, July, 1965 1965 from from original original dated November 15, 15, 1956 1956 �0"L1tdoor· Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. Game eaflet Game Informat Informationion L Leaflet 14 1\( '. Number5 Number 5 ARTIFICIAL ON BIG ARTIFICIAL REVEGETATION REVEGETATION BIG GAME GAME WINTER WINTER RANGES RANGES Like most of of the other other western western states, states, the Colorado Game, Fish, Fish, and Parks Parks Department Department is faced with an increasingly increasingly important important winter winter range problem problem with respect respect to our wintering wintering deer deer herds. herds. The destructive destructive use of of vegetation vegetation plus the resulting resulting loss loss of of the vital vital top soil soil has depleted depleted some of our winter winter ranges ranges to the point where it would would take many years years to bring bring back the range to its its original original carrying carrying capacity capacity with protection tection alone. Since Since in most most cases cases it is impossible impossible to give the range the protection protection that would would be needed to bring bring back the range naturally, naturally, it was felt felt that the field of artificial artificial revegetation revegetation should be thoroughly thoroughly explored explored in order order to determine determine if such measures measures would cally feasible. would be economi economically feasible. For four years 1956) the Department years (1953(1953-1956) Department carried carried on on research research programs programs designed designed to find the most efficient and economical economical methods methods of artificially artificially revegerevegetating winter ranges. tating depleted depleted winter ranges. Our goal was to find methods methods that that would would halt as much gully and sheet sheet erosion erosion as possible. possible. The methods used must (1) (1) provide vide aa ma.'C:imum maximum use of the available available precipitation. precipitation. Since it is impossible impossible to provide aa browse browse density density Since equivalent equivalent to the original original stand, stand, the methods must must (2) provide provide better better growing growing conditions for the present present (2) browse browse stand stand and and increase increase its its annual production production of forage. forage. (3) (3) The methods used should should be progressively progressively efficient efficient in the production production of of forage forage for deer deer and should last last at least least ten years years without benefit benefit of retreatment. treatment. (4) (4) Range management management with respect respect to both deer and livestock livestock should proceed proceed in conjunction with the range range treatment. treatment. (5) (5) The methods used must must be economically plants, preferably economically feasible. feasible. Other plants, preferably legumes legumes and buncbgrasses, bunchgrasses, should be planted planted in bebetween the contours contours to hasten hasten the the buildup of litter litter and humus in the soil. soil. So So far far the research research program program bas has succeeded succeeded in developing an efficient efficient method of soil soil preparation, preparation, selecting selecting several several species species of browse browse for for planting planting on the contours, contours, and several several species species of grasses grasses and legumes legumes for planting planting in between the contours. contours. The method of soil soil preparation preparation selected selected is intenintensive contour furrowing 12 ft. The furrowing at intervals intervals of of 88-12 contours contours are interrupted interrupted alternately alternately at intervals intervals of approximately approximately 50 50 yds. Two Two passes passes are are required required on each contour in order order to provide provide enough soil soil to plant plant seedlings seedlings on and to secure secure the proper proper contoUI· contour width and depth. The work is done done with aa motor motor patrol patrol equipped with a level level bubble that that eliminates eliminates the necessity necessity of staking staking out the contours contours ahead of time. time. The browse browse species species selected selected to date include 4-wing salt salt bush, squaw bush, silverberry, silverberry, and Russian Russian olive. Of the four, only 4wing salt 4-wing salt bush ii; is grown in in the the field from from seed, seed, the rest rest are are planted planted in the form form of of one year year old seedlings. seedlings. The work on suitable suitable species species is continuing. An analysis analysis of of the field plantings plantings at Gunnison An shows that that it it is possible possible for the Colorado Game, Fish, Fish, Parks Department Department to materially materially increase increase the and Parks forage forage available available for deer deer with with the climate climate and soil soil types types that exist exist in the Gunnison Gunnison area. area. The cost cost for the complete treatment 20 treatment has now now been set set at $15$15-20 per per acre. acre. As to whether whether or not this this is considered considered economically economically feasible feasible requires requires that that we place place a value on each herd of deer deer in the state. state. The methods methods that have been developed are are progressive progressive and within limits, limits, will provide provide an increasing increasing amount of available available forage over aa period period of of time. time. No No retreatment retreatment will be required. required. The cost quoted is considerably considerably less less than the cost of similar similar work that that has been completed completed in Utah and other other states. states. Claude E. White, Jr. Jr. Principal Principal Game Biologist Biologist Reissued Reissued July, July, 1965 1965 from original original dated December December 1, 1956 1956 �1 Ql_,1tdoor Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE ~: COLORADO GAME, GAME, F FISH PARKS DEPT DEPT. COLORADO ISH and PARKS Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet Number6 Number 6 SOME SOME EFFECTS EFFECTS OF OF HEAVY HEAVY USE USE ON BROWSE BROWSE PLANTS PLANTS "How much much punishment punishment can can aa browse browse plant stand?" stand?" is is a question question that that everyone everyone who who has worked with range range problems problems has often asked asked himself himself when looking looking at at a severely severely used range. range. The Mesa Mesa Verde Clip Plot Plot Study, being being conducted by the Federal Federal Aid Aid Division Division of Study, the Colorado e, Fish, Colorado Gam Game, Fish, and Parks Parks Department, Department, is an attempt attempt to learn learn the answer. answer. The study study has not yet an provided provided the complete complete answer, answer, but but it has demonstrated demonstrated several facts facts about the way sagebrush, sagebrush, bitterbrush, bitterbrush, several serviceberry, serviceberry, oakbrush, oakbrush, and and mountain mountain mahogany react to to browsing browsing that are are important important to the range range manmanager: ager: 1. growth stems 1. If If only the currentcurrent-growth stems (stems (stems of the year) year) are are removed, removed, most most plants plants of those those kinds kinds mencan survive survive the annual removal removal of all all of of the tioned can currentgrowth stems current-growth stems for a period period of of four or five years. years. However, However, tbe the removal removal of of old old wood, wood, in in addition addition current growth, growth, is is very very harmful harmful and and results results in in to the cui·rent early death death of of many plants. plants. the early 2. The The plants plants in the study, listed listed in order order of their their ability ability to withstand withstand destructive destructive browsing, browsing, from from hardihardiest est to least least hardy hardy are are as follows: oakbrush, oakbrush, serviceserviceberry, berry, mountain mountain mahogany, bitterbrush, bitterbrush, and sagebrush. brush. 3. Oakbrush Oakbrush w withstands destructive use best, best, and and 3, ithstands destructive sagebrush sagebrush is the least least hardy. hardy. For For example, example, the reremoval of of two years' years' stem stem growth in one year, year, and all moval of of the sterns stems to a diameter diameter of of 4 mm, mm. the second year year killed he oakbrush killed none of of tthe oakbrush plants. plants. In contrast, contrast, the removal of of two years' years' stem stem growth from sagebrush sagebrush removal killed 2 percent killed 80. 80.2 percent of of the plants plants the first first year, year, and and after after the current current growth growth was removed removed the second year, year, all of of the plants plants died. This vulnerability vulnerability of sagebrush sagebrush to the removal removal of more more than the current current growth is probably ty to produce probably due to to its its inabili inability produce stems stems from from old wood. wood. 4. Bitterbrush Bitterbrush is is nearly nearly as as vulnerable vulnerable to the the removal of more more than the current current stem stem growth growth as is sagebrush. sagebrush. For For example, example, the clipping of of two years' years' growth one year, year, and of all all stems stems to to aa diameter diameter of of 33 mm. the second 5 percent second year year killed killed 72. 72.5 percent of of the plants. plants. 5. 5. A A typical typical reaction reaction of plants plants to destructive destructive use is the production onger stems production of of fewer but but llonger stems and fewer fewer but larger larger leaves. leaves. Another Another is a large large increase increase in the number number of sucker sucker stems stems around the base base of of all plants plants tested, except except sagebrush. sagebrush. tested, It It seems seems likely to the author author that that sagebrush sagebrush (and other plants plants to aa lesser lesser extent) extent) on on heavilyheavily-used other used ranges ranges are are killed killed out aa stem stem or a branch branch at a time time by foraging domestic domestic or game animal animalss that that eat more more foraging than the current current growth. Often Often in in heavily-used heavily-used winter winter range areas, areas, especially especially during during severe severe winters, winters, big range game animals stem growth. animals eat more more than the currentcurrent-stem growth. The The author author remembers remembers one one winter winter when deer deer and elk elk were were reduced reduced to eating old, old, woody woody stems stems of mountain mountain oakbrush as as large large as as one half inch in mahogany and oakbrush diameter. diameter. Even during during normal normal winters winters on on overstocked overstocked ranges, ranges, game game will often often eat more more than the current current growth growth from from many stems. stems. Most permanent permanent injury injury to browse esults when currentgrowth browse plants plants probably probably rresults current-growth stems become become so so short short that that bites bites often include old stems wood. wood. Harold Harold R. R. Shepherd Shepherd Associate Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher Associate Reissued Reissued July, July, 1965, 1965, from from original original dated December December 15, 1956 1956 elated �Outdoor Facts Outdoor PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED "", 1Hf ~J I DEPARTMENT OF NATURALLRESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATUR DIVISION OF GAME. GAME. FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet I , , , " ' Number 7 Number7 SEX DETERMINATION DETERMINATION IN DRESSED ELK CARCASSES CARCASSES SEX I DRESSED ELK more emphasis emphasis is being made on the More and more future refinement refinement of game management management techniques future techniques hunter harvest harvest methods, necessitated by the and hunter methods, necessitated possibly fewer nwnbers numbers of animals and the possibly of game animals greater demand brought brought on by an increasing increasing hunting greater This means, means, then, that that eventually dicpublic. Tbis eventually we may dictate how how many animals animals of each species species may be taken tate sex, similar similar to Colorado's Colorado's elk validation validation system system by sex, now in effect. To properly properly administer, administer, and enforce now enforce system, we must must be able to distinguish distinguish the sex sex such a system, field-dressed quartered carcasses carcasses that are are of field-dressed and quartered normal sex sex characteristics. original devoid of of the normal characteristics. The original this study was to determine determine if a way way of disdisintent of this tinguishing carcasses could be found found tinguishing the sexes sexes of carcasses average fieldman fieldman could use. use. which the average source of data data for this this study consisted of elk The source consisted of seven permanent permanent check stations stations checked through the seven operated Department. The information information gathoperated by the Department. gathered consisted management unit unit of kill; ered consisted of the game management right and left left sides sides the number number of antler antler points on the right on bulls; bulls; the length of spike spike or yearling yearling antlers; antlers; the circumference of antlers antlers (six inches above the burr burr circumference spikes, and between the bez and trez trez tines on the on spikes, tines on older bulls); determined by dentition; dentition; the conolder bulls); age as determined jugate diameter; diameter; the presence presence or visibility visibility of the pizzle-eye; the depth and length of the aitch pizzle-eye; aitch bone; and incidental remarks carcass, incidental remarks concerning concerning condition of carcass, manner of of splitting, splitting, etc. manner terms, derived derived from from veterinary, veterinary, The following terms, medical, and slaughterhouse slaughterhouse usage, are used commedical, usage, are report. See Figures Figures 11 and 2. monly in this report. Aitch bone - that portion of arch exposed as that portion of the pubic arch result of the splitting pelvis a result splitting of the pelvis through the pubic symphysis. symphysis. through Pubis or or pubic bone - one of the bones making up the pelvis, located located on the front pelvis, front or antero-ventral portion. portion. antero-ventral §ymp.!:!ysis-- the line of junction be_§ymp_hysis junction and median fusion beoriginally separated tween bones originally separated or disdistinct. tinct. Pizzle-ey~ - the remains of the crural crural attachments attachments Pizzle-ey~ remains of penis, or the insertion insertion of (roots) of the penis, penile ligament, ligament, located located at the posthe penile posterior end of the aitch aitch bone on male carterior carcasses. casses. Ischial tubercles elevated points points of origin Ischial tubercles - the elevated origin of the pizzle-eye suspensory ligaligapizzle-eye or suspensory ments of of the penis penis between between the ments symphysis and the tuber tuber ischii ischii of symphysis ischium. the ischium. Cod Fat Fat - fat that that accumulates region of the Cod accumulates in the region scrotum scrotal sac sac of males. males. scrotum or in the scrotal or lobulated lobulated in appearappearSuch fat is rough or ance. Fat - fat that that accumulates accumulates in the region region of the Udder Fat udder or mammary mammary glands in females, females, udder usually smooth smooth in appearance. appearance. usually Gracilis muscle muscle - the exposed muscular muscular tissue tissue arisarisGracilis from the ventral ventral or lower side side ing from aitch bone, most most of the pubis or aitch apparent on carcasses carcasses in which the apparent aitch bone has been split split or sepasepaaitch rated. rated. Sacrum - the almost almost triangular triangular bone, formed Sacrum formed of five fused vertebrae, vertebrae, between the two innominate innominate turn are are on opposite sides bones, which in turn opposite sides and form form the greater greater part part of the pelvis. pelvis. Sacral anterior ventral ventral point of the Sacral promontory promontory - the anterior sacrum. sacrum, Conj~gate diameter diameter - the ventro-dorsal diameter of Conj.!!_gate ventro-dorsal diameter pelvic inlet inlet or superior superior the pelvic aperture, from from the pubic symsymaperture, physis promontory. physis to the sacral sacral promontory. Round - the muscle surrounding the femur femur or upper upper Round muscle surrounding referred to as the hams. leg bone, also also referred hams. Table 1 presents presents the mean and range range in inches inches of Table �diameter and the number involved for the conjugate diameter yearling and all bulls, and all cows. It is yearling bulls, and yearling yearling and observed that the mean conjugate diameter diameter of yearyearobserved (5.546) difference with ling bulls (5. 546) is only about half the difference all bulls bulls (5.845) (5.845) than that that of yearling yearling cows (6.071) (6.071) is with all cows cows (6.738). (1) yearling (6. 738). This suggests suggests that {1) yearling maturity from from the yearling cows grow much more more to maturity yearling class or (2) compounded by class (2) that natural natural growth is compounded enlargement from calving in adult years. enlargement years. Both of these possibilities may be true degrees. these possibilities tru.e to varying degrees. Table 1--Conjugate l--Conjugate Diameters, Yearling and Adult Table Diameters, in Inches, of Yearling Adult Bulls and Cows Age Sex and Age Bulls All Bulls Yearling Yearling Bulls All Cows Yearling Cows. Yearling Cows Range Range 3.75 to 7.50 3.75 to 7.00 3,75 8.25 25 4.10 to 8. 4.10 to 7.90 Mean Mean 5.845 5,845 5.546 6.738 6. 738 6.071 6.071 range, and number of of subjects subjects on on which The mean, range, and length the computation is based for the depth and Number Number 1,263 631 727 77 77 measurements of the aitch bone (pubic (pubic symphysis) symphysis) are are measurements presented in table 2. presented Table 2--Depth and Length Measurements, in Inches, of the Aitch Aitch Bone of Elk Elk Table 2--Depth Length Measurements, Age Sex and Age Age Sex and Age All Bulls All Bulls Yearling Bulls Yearling All Cows Yearling Cows Yearli_ng Meann Mea 1.522 1.462 1.279 1.322 Depth De:etb Range Number Range Number 0.75 to 2.10 589 0.90 to 1.80 205 0.75 to 2.30 0.75, 333 0.90 to 1.80 1.80 0,90 74 average depth and length of the As expected, the average aitch bone is greater greater for all bulls yearlings, , aitch bulls than for yearlings reason yearling cow elk ha.ve have a deeper but for some reason yearling cow deeper measurement measurement than the mean for all cows. This was last two years measuring by the noticed during the last years of measuring writer, difference, not due to any any writer, and this is an actual dilference, measuring discrepancies. discrepancies. The reason reason for this is not measuring known, but may have some bearing on hormone balbearing on balknown, ance and prenatal prenatal physiology. The mean aitch are larger larger for aitch bone measurements measurements are bulls than for cows, as expected, with more differmore differrelative ence exhibited in length than in depth. The relative of the aitch bone is distinctive distinctive by sex. Figures Figures shape of 3 and and 4 show show some typical typical bull and cow cow aitch bone Mean Mean 5.621 5.263 .5.263 5.192 6,192 4.968 Length Length Range Number Range Number 3.70 to 8.20 521 4.30 to 6.40 4.30 6 .40 204 3.50 to 66.50 ,50 306 3.80 to 5.80 73 cross-sections, with their their measurements, and the cross-sections, measurements and obvious difference difference in the oval or rounded sha1Je shape for obvious bulls and and the almost almost diamond-shape diamond-shape for cows of the anterior portion of of the pubic synlphysis. symphysis. anterio1· On sample pelvises on which writer worked, it On pelvises on which the writer was found of the aitch bone measurefound that the sum of measurements exceeded the conjugate diameter diameter on on bull pelvises. The conjugate diameter diameter was greater greater than the vises. depth plus the length of the aitch aitch bone on females. females. When these during these data were analyzed dur ing the last last two When years of statement is years of the study it was found found that the statement true for bolls, bulls, but that approximately approximately one-third one-third of of true cows showed the same relationship relationship as the bull the cows measurements, this being primarily true of the yearyearmeasurements, primarily true and cows which. which hadn't calved ling cows and calv ed yet (Table 3). Table 3--Relationship 3--Relationship of the Sum of the Depth Depth and Length Length of the Aitch Aitch Bone Table tbe Sum Bone to the ConjuDiameter on Elk gate Diameter Sex and Age Age Sex. All Bulls All Yearling Year l ing Bulls Bulls All Cows Cows All Yearling Yearling Cows Greater Than Than Greater Number Percent Percent Nwnber 99.6 507 100.0 198 34.44 34. 98 43 64.2 43 Therefore, the hopedhoped-for relationship doesn't doesn't exist exist Therefore, for relationship of any doubt-doubt--other to the exclusion exclusion of other than for one one sex. In other other words, words, any any carcass carcass on on which the conjugate diameter greater than the sum of of the aitch bone diameter is greater bone measurements is a cow, cow, but the converse converse is not measurements always true. true. Equal Egual To Number Percent Percent Number 2 0o 11 11 3 0.4 0.4 0.0 3.9 4.5 4.5 Less Than Than Number Percent !'er ce_nt Number 0o o0 176 21 21 00.0 .0 0.0 o.o 61.7 31.3 previously, is still still the The pizzlepizzle- eye, defined previously, best single criterion criterion to determine determine a male carcass, carcass, as best single they all must have this this suspensor. suspensory ligament ligament of of the penis. had extensive experience, experience, the penis. Unless one has had distinguish the pizzle-eye, pizzle-eye, or the ischial ischial ability to distinguish tubercle from whicb which it arises arises (see Figure Figure 1), may be tubercle �~--------12;" ~--------14"---------- Jl1---- w ~ - I/iu,", ~---rS--/F,-t-y Sacrum ShoFl-o~ Diu,." AeefaDulvm /6!z" 15" Pubis Isc:nivm Ischial Al"'Ch Len/al Tc";,ocrc/es ...,.va!~, ... -:n.,:=:~? ~- F/yure 1. I",,,:;,', • ;, •o"r' .r •.,. ,o~,~ y••r ,1..,,.,1 V••."I-,..""I "'."<'peer of/ .,,_1.,, ",,_Iv/S' /{)~/s "'.0'1' .u 0/'" -toi// *"/-', elk, , ~1.,,/ ~,I, • .-~ . - /'-... /~c ../• ."''1'''' ,... .show;".!! :>'6", ;/.$'<:;";,,,/ ,l-u.6.,.c/~S' /'ro-. ..,A.r,.h _h,·en no>C' ,.,_._ 'p/~""/e a,./S'O'.r. ,r.,I.~. ."eN.D.#"/'I s/,;'. I '·" I F-yure J". $. P:,-• Bv/1 ,,&,;,..,•~. $"'0-,., 11 c1~.,..11, ....,.,r4 ' /~ '1 Bull "'" elk Q/k~ QI.:,1ch.bonQ:>, ShO"/I".,2 oIel"/A _.,.,,.t ond ,/"'''yM ,:;,C'he.,. o,......,._,..~:.,,... "ncjl#~S,, on.:,/ oncT' ,c,4,: Me ,,..._.,,,.,.,,.,or rau,.../"'q' or "',.. 11-1'0 •... .,/- .rAo,,.o•6 3huped Q":/.e,..,"o,_po.,/,~,.. ,',(,, p,,,,.4,"e 'p<u-r,o •.• o/ o/"",~he pu6/e. .1 syy-.-ny,.-#, .••• ,Phy.r/s. o An+e,..,°or Fijvre 4. ,:,//~/, Aones;. . Cow •IA. elk. O';/c": .6one.s; 7 r, . ..,.C'::!· s.Ao,,.,.,n arPd' /onyrh ShOVVI"351 ole,or" depfA and' /enS'~h h, -,he,,'u-.,. nri<- o/-o~ o/,V,.,ono/-..:r~a,,.oeo' o-nkr1or 1'1'7 ,nches,., o"'d ancl' ""he a/ ..•• o.:T~ ,t04oh7ond-sha.;ceo' CU7re,."O~ p,,,..,';o,,.. ;0uA,C -:ryn,phy1,#. ,100,-,1,"0,.. o,r o"c ~.4.,. :t'..4t!~u.6,;c ,sj'n'Tp,l,ys,".T. R.N.D. ~;/61. RN.D. 5/61. �difficult, difficult, depending depending upon how how cleanly or nearly nearly centered tered the animal animal was split split when when dressed dressed out. out. If If tbe the carcass eye itcarcass bas has hung hung for some time, time, the pizzlepizzle-eye itself is usually usually dried dried back against the bone bone or or the ischial ischial tubercle, tubercle, which lies lies posteriorly posteriorly from the sympbysis symphysis along the ischial ischial arch arch to the the tuber tuber ischii. ischii. Other sex-distinguishing much sex-distinguishing characteristics, characteristics, less less specific specific in nature, nature, are are discussed discussed in the following: following: The definite definite "U" "U" shape shape of of the ischial ischial arch arch is characteristic characteristic of of cow cow pelvises, pelvises, and the more more definite "V" "V" shape of the ischial ischial arch arch of the bulls is specific. specific. The difference between the cod fat, rather difference between rather rough and lobulated, lobulated, and and the udder fat, rather rather smooth smooth by by comparison, distinguishing characteristic. comparison, is a sexsex-distinguishing characteristic. The general general body body covering of of fat fat is usually usually much sparser rut, than on sparser on on a bull, particularly particularly after after the rut, cows, especially especially when when dealing dealing with adults. adults. Other factors factors familiar familiar to men in in the profession profession which are are different different in the sexes sexes are are comparative comparative shape >sed below the shape of of the inner ham ham muscles muscles expC exposed aitch markings; aitch bone; general general color and pelage markings; canine canine or or whistler whistler teeth; relative relative coLor color of the meat; and general general conformation of of the sexes. sexes. Richard Richard N. N. Denney Denney Wildlife Researcher Researcher Revised, expanded and reissued reissued July, July, 1965, 1965, from orig;inal original dated January January 15, 15, 1957 1957 �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED LI HE BY THE DEPT.l , I· I H and , d PAR COLORADO PARKS OEP . CO ORADO GAME, A E FISH NumberS Numbers Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet WARBLES OF COTTONTAIL COTTONTAIL RABBITS RABBITS WARBLES OF The cottontail, cottontail, our nation's nation's number one game animal, is highly esteemed esteemed both for the sport sport it offers offers dressing the rabbit rabbit for the table, and for the table. table. In dressing table, more large large grubs grubs may occasionally occasionally be found found one or more hunter under the skin of the rabbit. rabbit. When When this this by the hunter rabbit is usually usually regarded regarded as "wormy "wormy"1 ' happens, the rabbit matter whether whether or not the food food value or It does not matter flavor of of the flesh flesh has been harmed, harmed, the "worm" "worm" has flavor offended the hunter hunter esthetically esthetically and the the rabbit rabbit will be offended thrown away. away. However, if the grub manages manages to leave unobserved, either either just after or before before the rabbit rabbit was unobserved just after killed, the enjoyment of fried rabbit on the part part of the killed, fried rabbit impaired. hunter is not impaired. Instead of opening as usual usual in October October 1956, 1956, the Instead season on on rabbits rabbits opened earlier, earlier, September September hunting season 1,1956. of warbles, especially from Gunnison 1, 1956. Reports Reports of warbles, especially from Gunnison county, prompted prompted the game manager, manager, G. G. N. N. Hunter, issue a mem memorandum personnel. This to issue orandum to all field personnel. stated that the incidence incidence of of warbles warbles would memo stated would probably decline after after September September 15. 15. Also, he reprobably decline regather information information on on the quested that field men gather earlier ir.cidence of warbles warbles in connection with the earlier opening of the season. season. Warbles are the grubs grubs or larvae larvae of of flies Warbles are flies which infect certain certain m mammals. these flies infect ammals. Most of these flies which attack rabbits rabbits and rodents rodents belong to the genus attack Cuterbra. authorities place these Cuterbra. Although Although some authorities these flies into a separate separate family, they are are related related to the flies warbles of cattle cattle and the nose bot of deer. deer. There warbles There is known about about the warbles of rabbits not a great great deal known warbles of rabbits rodents. Even the accurate accurate identification identification of and rodents. of the warble is dependent upon rearing larva to the warble rearing the larva soil or sand. adult fly in damp soil Generally -· - the life cycle is as follows: The adult Generally flies which resemble bumble bees flies resemble bumble bees mate, mate, and the females deposit deposit eeggs on the host's host's (cottontail's) (cottontail's) hair. hair. females ggs on hatches and the small small larva larva burrows The egg hatches burrows into the larva, white at first, first, develops under under the skin. The larva, large, dark, dark, often spiny larva larva skin and forms forms into a large, larva about an inch long and half an inch wide. This larva breathes air air through through a small small hole in the skin. When breathes When development in the rabbit complete, it emerges emerges the development rabbit is complete, through through the hole and drops to the ground. It then burrows its covering covering becomes becomes burrows into the ground where where its thickened forming forming a case case within which the change thickened from grub to fly t. takes stage known known from a kes place. place. This is a stage stage. The adult fly emerges as the pupal stage. emerges and the enacted again. The flies flies of of this this genus cycle is enacted (Cuterbra) are are apparently apparently quite restricted restricted in their their (Cuterbra) rabbits or rodents. rodents. A particular particular species species choice of rabbits most commonly be found found in a single single species species of will most rabbit but may occur less frequently frequently in other other rabbits rabbits rabbit occur less or rodents. rodents. Several Several species species of warbles warbles are are known known to occur in Colorado. occur January 1957 1957 Journal Journal of Wildlife ManageIn the January S. Geis gives some some interesting ment, A. S. interesting information information warbles in southern southern Michigan. Michigan. He He found the peak on warbles infection in August but trailing trailing to the first first part part of infection November. consistently higher higher in juNovember. Incidence was consistently juvenile than in adult cottontails. cottontails. Most of the rabbits rabbits carried less less than three three grubs grubs per per rabbit rabbit examined carried carried as many as eight. Infected Infected rabbits rabbits but one carried had significantly significantly higher higher white blood cell cell counts and infection can apparently apparently cause cause death.. death. heavy infection Now Colorado data data --. stated, Now for some Colorado - -. As already already stated, a high incidence infection occurred occurred during during incidence of warble warble infection early September September in Gunnison county, where nearly early where nearly every animal animal was infected. infected. Stan Ogilvie and Marvin Marvin every warble infection infection about Smith mentioned mentioned areas areas of warble stated that rabbits were Salida and stated that rabbits were being discarded discarded on the dump at Canon City. Dick Denny Denny reported reported on warbles cottontails in the northwest northwest warbles occurring occurring among cottontails part of the state. state. part examining rabbits also checked In examining rabbits for lungworm, I also warbles and talked several cottontail cottontail hunters hunters for warbles talked with several Colorado Springs. Springs. None hunters I talked talked to in Colorado None of the hunters had encountered encountered warbles, all had hunted east or warbles, and all east or southeast of Colorado Springs Springs but in El Paso Paso county. southeast of Colorado September one rabbit rabbit was shot shot on Four Four Mile Creek Creek In September near Vista that that contained contained two large large larvae larvae over over near Buena Vista the rump. It was eaten eaten by personnel stapersonnel on a check station. Three Three cottontails cottontails and five snowshoe rabbits rabbits taken by Gordon Seneff and Charles Roberts in Park Park Charles Roberts free of warbles. warbles. Of eight cottontails cottontails county were were free October, three three of them were were taken in Teller Teller county in October, infected--two with immature immature larvae (white and about infected--two larvae (white �l/2 1/2 inch long) over the rump rump and the third third with large large larva egion. All were eaten. In Novemlarva in the throat throat rregion. November ber one of of the three three taken in Teller Teller county contained an jmmature 25/56). immature warble warble over the rump rump - (11/ (11/25/56). As in Michigan, the peak in in the incidence incidence of warwarbles bles among cottontail cottontail rabbits rabbits occurs occurs in August and declines declines thereafter. thereafter. Instances Instances of of infection infection do occur occur in November November and possibly possibly through through the winter. winter. The warble warble and and any local local inflammation inflammation can easily easily be trimmed trimmed off when the rabbit rabbit is is dressed. dressed. The flavor flavor of of the fried fried rabbit rabbit is not affected affected in the least least,, but certainly certainly rabbit rabbit should should be thoroughly cooked before before being being eaten. Once cooked the the meat is perfectly perfectly safe. safe. Richard Richard E. E. Fillmore Pillmore U. U. S. Fish Fish and Wildlife Service Service Denver Wildlife Research Research Laboratory Laboratory Reissued Reissued July, 1965, 1965, from from original original dated April April 15, 15, 1967. 1957. �Outdoor Facts t t H-0 BY THE PUBLISHED COLORADO FISH and PARKS DEPT. CO O AOO GAME, AME , Fl nd PA KS DEPT. Number 9 umber9 Game Game Informat Informationion. L Leaflet aflet LUNGWORMS IN COLORADO LUNGWORMS IN COLORADO At present time neither found found nor At the present time we have neither identified all of of the lungworms occurring occurring in Colorado. We do not know know how how many of of our wild animals are We animals are of lungworm lungworm infected with lungworm, or the effects of these animals. animals. infection on the populations of these Mountain goat), deer, deer, and rabbits. rabbits. The larvae Mountain larvae of this group develop in land snails. snails. Several Several genera genera are are inthis group but the genus Protostrongy:lus Protostrongylus cluded in this is most important following species species important in Colorado. The following are found found in Colorado: are are lungworms? There are two two What actually are There are of worms, the fiat-worms flat-worms (Trematoda) and groups of and the roundround-worms, (Nematoda). Some Some animals animals includworms, (Nematoda). ing man are are infected with flatflat-worms attack the worms that attack known as lung-flukes. lung.o.flukes.Most found lungs, known Most of of the worms found are round-worms round-worms or nemain the lungs of animals are Some like Ascaris migrate through the lungs todes. Some Ascaris migrate digestive tract, as larvae larvae and mature mature in the digestive tract, but most round-worms which live as adults in the lungs lungs of the round-worms Metastrongylibelong to a group or family called the Metas trongylidae. This family is composed of several smaller smaller of several groups. Protostrongylus stilesi stilesi --- Bighorn sheep (occurs Protostrongv.lus R.. M. goat) goat) also in R rushi -P. rushi - - Bighorn sheep (occurs also in R. M. goat) goat) P. macrotis macrotis -Mule deer deer (reported (reported elsewhere elsewhere in -- Mule pronghorn) P. sylvilagi ---- Cottontail rabbit, snowshoe hare, hare, P . sylvilagi white-tailed (elsewhere in whitetailed jackrabbit) jackrabbit) hare and whitewhite-tailed P. boughtoni boughtoni --- Snowshoe Snowshoe hare tailed jackrabbit jackrabbit One group infects the lungs o( o( hoofed-animals hoofed-animals One (sheep, goats, cows, camels, camels, and and horses), horses), and and the larvae become capable of infecting these animals animals larvae without developing within another animal. These worms belong to the genus Dic!Y.ocaulus. Dictyocaulus. In In Colorado, viviparous is found found in the lungs of Dictyocaulus vi.viP.arous of mule deer, elk and cows, while Dicty:ocaulus Dictyocaulus filaria deer, filaria is found in the lungs lungs of of bighorn sheep, and domestic found domestic and goats. I have found found D. only one sheep and D. filaria filarfa in only set of of bighorn sheep lungs which came from Ouray. set infects swine and the larvae larvae deA second group infects earthworms, but this group is not known knownto velop in earthworms, to animals in Colorado. A third third group infect any wild animals infects sheep, goats, goat-antelopes goat-antelopes (example-(example--Rocky infects Rocky of these sspecies important to me in my work All of pecies were important lungworm of of bighorn sheep. I will explain a lot with lungworm these lungworms, their importance, life more about these their importance, cycle, and possible control control in later later leaflets. and possible leaflets. of lungworms occur in Colorado Other groups of which infect the lungs of bobcats, badgers, marten, which badgers, marten, other carnivores. carnivores. Some Some may be found and probably other found among rodents (rats, (rats, mice, etc.) and insectivores insectivores among (shrews) as well. Richard E. Fillmore Pillmore Richard U. S. Fish Fish and and Wildlife Service Service U. Denver Wildlife Research Research Laboratory Laboratory Reissued July 1965, 1965, from original original Reissued May 1, 1957 1957 dated May �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHEDOB BY THE PU H COLORADO FISH and PARKS COL R DO GAME, GAME FlS ARI , DEPT. OEPT . Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number umber 10 LUNGWORM BIGHORN SHEEP SHEEP LU GWORM IN IN BIGHORN Part I - Origin of Lun~orms Part Lun~,;,orms Contrary to a popular opinion the lungworms susContrary suspected to have caused the deaths of bighorn sheep by domestic sheep. pneumonia were not introduced by domestic Protostrongylus stilesi stilesi and and the related related Apparently Protostrongylus rushi are are native to the wild sheep and mountain P. rushi goats, and have have never even been reported reported from the goats lungs of of domestic domestic sheep. Other lungworms common domestic sheep may, however, infect bighorn sheep to domestic bighornsheep filaria and larvae (Dictyocaulus filaria larvae resembling resembling that of Muellerius capillaris capillaris have been recovered recovered from bigMuellerius horns). lf If the bighorn sheep were not infected by the introduction of of domestic domestic sheep, then they must have introduction arrived in North America America with the ancestors ancestors of of our arrived wild sheep and mountain goats. It is possible possible that eventually the lungworms of the bighorn might bebedomestic sheep. Certainly Certainly in Eurasia, Eurasia, come adapted to domestic which is the aancestral which ncestral home of all the sheep and related to those of the goats, lungworms lungworrus very closely related bighorn do do infect domestic domestic sheep. Eurasia and not North America That Eurasia America was the ancestral of all sheep and and goat-antelopes goat-antelopes is virvircestral home of tually certain certain on the basis basis of the geological and biological evidence. This evidence is strengthened strengthened biological parasites and and their their life cycles. cycles. by a study of the lung parasites Undoubtedly a connection existed Alaska and Undoubtedly existed between Alaska Siberia during the Ice Ages (Pleistocene). (Pleistocene). The climate Siberia climate varied with the advance and retreat of continental continental varied retreat of glaciers. glaciers. of parasites parasites are are governed primarily The lives of primarily by environment, habits, habits, and physiology of the anithe environment, mals they infect. The variety variety and number of reprerepresentatives of a group of animals, animals, either either living or sentatives fossil, tends to indicate indicate the birthplace fossil, birthplace of the group. For this reason reason the U.S.S.R. and adjacent adjacent areas areas are are For he U .S.S.R. and troubled with more more kinds of lungworms troubled lw1gworms among both domestic and wild sheep and and goats. Furthermore, Furthermore, the domestic supports Eurasia Eurasia as as the place the geological evidence supports of origin origin of of both the sheep and the group of snails snails serve as the intermediate lungworms which serve intermediate hosts for lwigworms Protostrongylus. of the genus Protostrongylus. All evidence considered, considered, we we must must conclude that the bighorn sheep and mountain goats~ goats, the lungworms, bighorn and the intermediate intermediate host snails snails all ancesall had their their ancestral home in Eurasia. Eurasia. The U.S.S.R. tral U.S.S.R. can probably probably boast the first first boast first sheep or goat, as well as the first satellite, but even at a very early early date they were satellite, were America. seeking asylum in North North America. Part II - Life Cycle of Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Part The adult lungworms of several several species Protospecies of Protostrongylus are are found found in the lungs of bighorn sheep strongylus stilesi and and P. rushi), (P. stilesi rushi), mule deer deer (P. macrotis), macrotis), cottontail rabbits rabbits (P. sylvil~~), sylvilagE:l),and hares cottontail and snowshoe hares (P. boughtoni). boughtoni). With the exception rushi which exception of P. rushi has not been studied, the life cycle for all of these these bas species is essentially essentially identical. species identicaL females deThe adults mate in the lungs, and the females posit great great numbers numbers of eggs in the lungs. Small, posit first-stage larvae larvae emerge emerge from are first-stage from the eggs which are 3/2500ths of an inch in length. (Tremendous (TremendOUS about 3/2500ths numbers are necessary necessary if the parasite numbers of larvae larvae are parasite is to persist persist because because the individual larva larva has a very very slight chance of reaching reaching maturity.) larvae slight maturity.) These larvae bronchi and trachea trachea to the throat move up the bronchi throat where they are are swallowed, to pass pass through the intestinal intestinal tract droppings. {First(Firsttract and out on on the ground in the droppings. stage are hardy and under favorable favorable condistage larvae larvae are temperature and moisture more tions of temperature moisture may live for more year.) The first-stage first-stage larvae larvae are not capable than a year.) of producing producing an infection in the definitive host unless unless first infect an intermediate intermediate host which is a land they first snail (Pupillidae or Valloniidae families of land snails snails snail Valloniidae families hosts). Several Several facfacwill serve serve as the intermediate intermediate hosts). tors, such as habitat, habitat, habits, distritors, habits, abundance, and distribution snails, affect the infection of bution of both sheep and snails, snails. the snails. snails which come in contact firstActive snails contact with firstlarvae may have their their foot tissues tissues invaded by stage larvae the larvae burrow in and feed within. In the larvae which burrow snail the larva larva increases several times times in size size and snail increases several gut becomes becomes packed with food granules. The larva the gut food granules. larva then becomes quiet and coverings coverings are are shed twice but without the larva larva escaping escaping from from them. The second covering becomes dark dark brown and has a ridged ridged apcovering becomes pearance. An opening appears pearance. An appears in the coverings coverings at the larva may remain snail still still head end, but the larva remain in the snail �within the coverings coverings for some some time, time, but is now now capaproducing an infection infection or reaching reaching maturity maturity if ble of producing infected snail snail is eaten by the right right kind of definithe infected tive host, host. Eventually Eventually the larva larva may leave the snail snail but if it is is eaten eaten along with a bit of vegetation vegetation by the host host it will still still be capable capable of reaching reaching maturity. maturity. The time time required required for the larva larva to reach reach an infective infective stage of of development development within the snail snail is is quite variable variable from as little little as 11 11 to 13 13 days, to 40 40 or 60 60 days. The from rate of development development within the the snail snail is affected affected by rate intrinsic factors factors of the snail snail and the temperature temperature of intrinsic the environment. environment. prevent the build up of lungworru lungworm infection infection of tbe the prevent bighorn bighorn sheep. sheep. Once eaten by the definitive definitive host, the infective infective Once larva larva presumably presumably penetrates penetrates the walls walls of the intesintestines and reaches reaches blood or lymph in in which it is carcartines ried ried along to the heart heart and pumped into the lungs. The larvae larvae apparently apparently lodge in the capillaries capillaries of the lungs and grow to maturity. maturity. The time time required required to reach maturity maturity in the lungs and for larvae larvae to appear appear reach in the droppings droppings of the host is between 30 and 60 days. For For example, example, we m,ight might watch for concentrations concentrations sheep on areas areas as a result result of of salt salt station station locaof sheep tions, as as aa result result of of restricted restricted areas areas of good good forage forage tions, resulting from drought or other other livestock, livestock, or as a resulting result result of topography topography as it determines determines escape escape cover, cover, must be close close by for ewes and lambs. lambs. When When we which must observe observe localized localized use by bighorns bighorns we can utilize utilize our cycle, and determine determine if if the knowledge of the life cycle, observed observed use use is detrimental detrimental to the sheep sheep in so far far as lungworm infection infection is is concerned, concerned. First First we might search for snails snails and if if these these are are present present then then it is is search probably probably an area area where where transmission transmission of the lungworm occurs. occurs. If If no snails snails are are found found it does not mean that they are are necessarily necessarily absent. A A collection collection of rabbits, rabbits, if they exist exist here, here, may give some indication indication of tbe the danger danger to sheep, sheep, since since tbe the same same conditions conditions are are apparently parently as necessary necessary for the lungworms lungworms of rabbits rabbits as for sheep. The adult lungworms lungworms may not live very long in the lungs of the hosts; hosts; however, however, since since the longevity of the larvae larvae might exceed aa year, year, live for over over a year year in for perhaps perhaps another another year year or so the snail, and live for after leaving leaving the snail, snail, it is certainly certainly apparent apparent that a after problem problem develops when when heavy infections infections build up which can not be quickly remedied. remedied. Three Three sets sets of lungs from from the Pikes Pikes Peak herd herd obtained in 1957 1957 were all heavily infected infected even though this this herd was drasdrastically tically reduced reduced by disease disease in 1953. 1953. In checking further further into this this problem, problem, the types types of of In habitat where transmission transmission of these these parasites parasites can habitat where occur occur must must be determined. determined. To get more more information information would suggest suggest the collection collection of lungs of cottontails, cottontails, II would or snowshoe rabbits rabbits by any interested interested field personnel. personnel. or It would be important important to indicate indicate the kind of rabbit, rabbit, the locality locality where it was killed, killed, and the kind of trees trees or cover juniper; cover the rabbit rabbit was collected collected in, pinonpinon-juniper; fir-aspen; spruce-fir; oakbrush; Douglas firaspen; sprucefir; and so forth. forth. The snail snail hosts hosts are are widely distributed distributed through through the the state state of of Colorado Colorado but are are not abundant everywhere; everywhere; therefore, therefore, areas areas which are are habitually habitually used or or espeespecially cially atttactive attractive to bighorn bighorn sheep demand the greatest greatest attention when the snail snail hosts are abundant on on these these attention hosts are areas. areas. That is, if the areas areas are are to be managed managed to Richard Richard E. Fillmore Pillmore U.S. U.S. Fish Fish and Wildlife Service Service Denver Denver Wildlife Research Research Laboratory Laboratory Reissued Reissued July, July, 1965, 1965, from original original dated January January 15, 15, 1958 1958 �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED B HE BY THE COLORADO CLO GAME,. FISH and n PARKS GAME id" , DEPT. D· T I· Number 11 Numberll Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game BUFFALO PEAKS PEAKS BIGHORN BIGHORN SEASONS SEASONS BUFFALO The Buffalo Peaks Peaks herd herd on the west side of South west side Park and north north of Trout Trout Creek Creek Pass Pass is a native native herd herd Park Bighorns which, prior losses in 1923, 1923, attributed attributed of Bighorns prior to losses hemorrhagic septicemia, septicemia, numbered numbered several to hemorrhagic several hundred head with about a hundred hundred head crossing crossing from from dred winter in the vicinity vicinity of Midland Hill, Hill. The Mt. Yale to winter herd increasing during during the 1940's. 1940's. In 1952 1952 a herd was increasing party reported reported seeing seeing about 60 head of ewes and party lambs, and during during the deer season the same year a lambs, deer season same year hunter reported reported seeing seeing about 30 head of rams. hunter rams, Ten ram permits were established established for the 1953 1953 hunting ram permits were bunting season. Nine rams rams were were killed, killed, all on the Alpine season. portion of this this range, range, and all were infected infected with lungportion all were worm. In view of the lungworm infection and the 1924 1924 worm. lungworm infection epizootic it seemed seemed advisable advisable to attempt attempt a reduction reduction epizootic this herd avert a rrecurrence of this herd to try try and avert ecurrence of the epizootic, such such as had already already happened Pikes epizootic, happened in the Pikes Peak and Tarryall either-sex season Peak Tarryall herds. herds. An either-sex season with for 1954. Field Field observaobserva70 permits permits was established established for tions during during 1954 revealed revealed concentrations concentrations of ewes and tions lambs on the Alpine range range and snail snail hosts hosts for for lunglunglambs worm also found on the Alpine range, range. worm were were also Field investigations in 1955 1955 revealed Field investigations revealed as many, or more, sheep sheep present present on the Alpine range range as were were more, seen in 1954, from seemed logical logical to conseen from which it seemed clude that that the season season had accomplished accomplished little little more more than remove remove the increase increase of the herd. herd. than During the 1955 1955 season season only one hunter hunter was sucsucDuring cessful, yet yet in November, November, when a group group of sheep sheep were were cessful, taken for for a museum, 12 of 46 head of sheep sheep seen seen (no (no taken museum, 12 Table 1 -- Harvest Harvest Statistics, Statistics, Buffalo Buffalo Peaks Peaks Bighorn Bighorn Sheep Sheep Herd, Herd, 1953-64. 1953-64. Table Season Season 1953 1953 3-13 Sept. 313 1954,'( 1954;' < Sept. 11-19 11-19 Sept. 1955 Sept. 3-11 Sept, 1956 1956 Sept. 1-9 1957,'< 1957* 31-Sept. Aug. Aug. 31-S ept . 15 1958,'( 1958>~ 30-Sept. 14 Aug. Aug. 30-Sept. 1959 29-Sept. 13 Aug. 29-Sept. Aug. 1960 1960 Aug. 27-Sep 27-Sept. t . 11 Aug. 1961 26-Sept. Aug.. 26 - Sept. 10 Aug 1962 1962 Aug. 18-Sept. 18-Sept. 3 Aug. 1963 Aug. 24-Sept. 8 Aug. 24-Sept. 1964 1964 Aug. 22-Sept. 22-Sept. 27 Aug. TOTALS TOTALS *Either-sex seasons seasons *Either-sex Total Total Permits Eermits Permits Perm its Sold Sold Rams Rams 10 10 9 70 64 12 10 10 10 20 Harvest Harvest Ewes Lambs Lambs Ewes Total Total Success Success Ratio Percent Ratio Percent 9 90 33 51 11 1 10 20 4 4 20 70 60 12 12 3 32 53 50 50 24 24- 24 48 10 10 2 2 20 10 10 3 3 30 10 10 3 3 30 10 10 8 8 80 10 10 22 2 20 10 290 10 274 3 59 3 124 30 45.2 45.2 17 17 15 32 UncI.. Uncl 4 2 6 27 �0 1tdo ] Facts Outdoor -----, PUBl ISHEO BV PUBLISHED BY Tl-Ila' THE , , COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH FISH and PARKS DEPT DEPT. COLORADO nd PARKS Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet RABIES AND WILDLIFE RABIES AND WILDLIFE Rabies has been reported reported from from aa great great variety variety of of warm-blooded warm-blooded animals, animals, which which include the following following wild species: species: Wolf, Wolf, coyote, fox, skunk, badger, badger, weasel, weasel, bear, bear, raccoon, elk, elk, deer, deer, antelope, rabbit, rabbit, porcupine, gopher, marmot marmot (woodchuck), (woodchuck), squirrel, squirrel, rat, rat, mouse, mole, mole, several several species species of insectivorous insectivorous bats, and and hawks hawks and and owls. Man Man and and his domestic domestic animals animals may also become infected, infected, especially especially dogs which are are frefrequently quently victims victims of of this disease. disease. In the guph, graph, the relationship relationship of of the reported reported cases cases of rabies rabies in dogs to human human cases cases of of the disease disease is readily readily apparent. apparent. In this same graph you you will notice that that while the rereported number of of cases cases for dogs is declining, the number number of miscellaneous miscellaneous or or wildlife cases cases is apparapparently increasing. increasing. The The reason reason for for this upward upward trend trend of rabies rabies in wild animals animals might be explained at least least in part part by an increased increased interest interest in in the wild wild animals animals carrying carrying rabies; rabies; for for example, from the first first reported reported cases cases in 1953 1953 to 1957 1957 there there were 175 175 laboratorylaboratoryconfirmed cases cases of of rabies rabies in insectivorous insectivorous bats bats from 17 17 states. states. Another explanation might be increasing increasing population densities densities of of the important important "carrier" "carrier" spespecies, cies, such as foxes foxes and skunks. Were it not for cercerspecies some officials officials believe believe rabies rabies might tain wild species have been eliminated eliminated long ago. have agencies, such such as the Colorado DepartWildlife agencies, ment of of Game, Game, Fisn, Fish, and Parks, Parks, and and the United States States Fish and Wildlife Service, Service, have a dual responsibility responsibility to the wildlife and to the public--with public--with respect respect to sylvatic sylvatic rabies. rabies. The term term sylvatic sylvatic is used to distindistinguish the the disease disease as as it it occurs occurs in in wild animals animals from from guish the disease disease as as it it occurs occurs in the cities cities or among among man and and dogs. Rabies is caused by aa virus virus affecting the central central nervous nervous system system and and occurring occurring in the saliva saliva of the disease is, is, ·thus, thus, transmitted transmitted infected animal. The disease from animal to animal animal tnrough through the contamination of wound with the saliva. saliva. Thls This leads leads us to two two bite or wound important considerations considerations in an area area at any particular particular important time. time. These are are:: (1) (1) the number of animals animals already already infected with rabies, rabies, and (2) (2) the number of susceptible susceptible animals. animals. Rabies is aa fatal disease disease and once symptoms symptoms appear r eventative treatment pear the animal is is doomed, but ppreventative treatment when when started started early early enough enough may save an exposed in- 4t _J Number 12 Number12 ophylactic treatment dividual. This This pr prophylactic treatment is is described described as being expensive and and painful consisting consisting of aa series series of 14-21 injections injections with a vaccine; use of an anti-serum anti-serum is recommended recommended as an adjunct to the use of the vaccine. About About 60,000 60,000 persons persons in in the United States States are are given this treatment treatment annually. The duration duration of of the di sease after disease after symptoms symptoms appear appear is short, short, only only 3 to 7 days, but the virus virus may be present present in the saliva saliva about before symptoms 3 days before symptoms appear; therefore therefore suspect suspect animals bitten some animals (especially (especially those which have bitten person) should be confined confined for ten days. Then if the animal is is still still alive and has shown no symptoms symptoms it it may be safely released, released, and unless unless the exposure exposure nas has been been severe severe or close to the central central nervous system, system, the bitten bitten person person is spared spared the preventative preventative treattreatment. Si nce the disease Since disease is fatal fatal and of short short duration, duration, we we should .be .be able to predict predict the course course of the disease disease in in aa given population of species species of susceptible susceptible animals, mals, but the habits of the species, species, and and the symptoms produced produced must must first first be known. known. Certainly Certainly the size size of the animal, the animal, its mobility, and ability to inflict inflict aa severe severe bite are are important hnportant in determining determining the spread spread of the disease disease in the susceptible susceptible population. In general general if the population were small small enough, enough, rabies rabies could not maintain itself itself even if if introduced introduced into it. At the other other extreme extreme if if the population were sufficiently sufficiently dense the number of of clinical clinical cases cases would would rise rise sharply sharply and and most most number animals x posed, with the animals in the population would be e. exposed, result being aa population level level well below the one end result which which could could not not support support the disease. disease. Thus, you you have two theoretical emes: one aa population in which two theoretical extr extremes: rabies rabies would would quickly die out and the other other in which which rabies rabies would would die out only after after practically practically exterminexterminating ating the entire entire population. Most natural natural conditions where rabies rabies occurs occurs will lie between these these extremes extremes length of time time that that rabies rabies might per persist and the length sist in aa natural he lower natural population would would be longer at tthe lower popudensities between the extremes extremes mentioned, and lation densities theoretically there theoretically there would would be a level of population density which would would support support rrabies indefinitely. density abies indefinitely. For For Colorado, the laboratory-confirmed laboratory-confirmed cases cases axe are tabulated tabulated in the accompanying table. table. In In order order to appreciate preciate what this this information information means, means, it must be pointed out that the State Health Department Department Laborator toryy does not routinely routinely examine for rabies rabies from from a �-- LaboratoryTable 11 -Laboratory-Confirmed Table Cases of Rabies Rabies in Colorado Confirmed Cases Colorado in Recent Recent Years Years Species and Species Year Number Cases Year Number of Cases Counties and and Number Cases Counties Number of Cases Remarks Remar ks 1945-54 1945-54 cases (USDA 185 cases (USDA Year Book Yea1: Book Agr.) Agr .) 1956 1956 1955 1956 1956 1957 1958 1958 1959 1960 1960 No cases reported cases reported Dog Dog 1 Weld Weld 2 Mesa Mesa La Plata Plata Arapahoe Arapahoe 2 1 1 Larimer Larimer Kit Carson Kit Carson 1 5 2 Douglas Douglas Lincoln Lincoln 3 Kit Carson Carson Kit 1 2 Elbert Elbe1:t l1 5 2 Arapahoe Arapahoe Boulder Boulder Cheyenne Cheyenne Denver Denver Fremont Fremont Kit Carson Kit Carson 1 l 2 3 1 1 1 Logan Logan Otero Otero Pueblo Pueblo Weld Weld Yuma Yuma Adams Adams Arapahoe Arapahoe Boulder Boulder Delta Delta E1 Paso Paso El Jefferson Jefferson Kiowa Kiowa 2 1 2 1 3 2 1 Kit Carson Kit Carson Larimer Larimer Las Animas Animas Mesa Mesa Otero Otero Weld Weld Yuma Yuma l1 2 2 2 1 Dog Dog Fox Fox Skunk Skunk Bat 1 1 Skunk Sk,mk Coyote Coyote Bat Cat Cat Cow Cow Dog Dog Skunk Skunk 2 l1 Total Total cases cases for year: 2 Total cases Total for year: 6 cases Total Total cases for year: 7 2 3 2 4 Bat 4 Cat 2 Dog 3 Dog Fox 1 Fox Horse 1 Horse Skunk 10 Skunk Squirrel Squirrel 1 1 1 Total cases cases Total for year: 16 16 2 1 2 2. 1 1 cases Total cases for year: 22 1961 Muskrat Muskrat Squirrel Squirrel Skunk l1 Dog Dog Skunk Raccoon Raccoon 2 Bat 2 1 1 3 Fremont Fremont Garfield Garfield Bent Bent Jefferson Jefferson l1 1 1 2 Mesa Mesa Logan Logan Otero Otero Weld Weld 2 l1 2 1 Total cases To tal cases for year: 11 1962 1962 .Bat Bat 4 Adams Adams 1 Denver Denver 3 cases Total cases Total for year: 1963 1963 1964 1964 Bat 18 Cat 1 Raccoon Raccoon 1 Skunk 1 Skunk Adams Adams Arapahoe Arapahoe Jefferson Jefferson Boulder Bou l der Denver Denver 4 5 Skunk Skunk Bat Bat Adams Adams Arapahoe Arapahoe Denver Denver Fremont Fremont 11 1 1 1 3 8 4 3 11 Otero Otero Routt Routt Logan Logan Fremont Fremont Jefferson Jefferson Lincoln Lincoln Montrose Montrose Weld Weld 4 l1 1 l1 1 Total cases cases T9tal for year: 21 2 Total cases cases Total for year: 11 £or 1 3 1 �county county where the occurrence occurrence of of the disease disease has already ready been est::>.blished. established. An An exception is is made when aa person person has been bitten by aa suspect suspect animal animal or some other circumstance circumstance makes makes it advisable advisable to attempt attempt confirmation confirmation of of rabies. rabies. Positive Positive rabies rabies diagnosis diagnosis is accomplished accomplished by examining brain brain tissue tissue microscopmicroscopically ically for for specific specific pathological pathological changes changes called Negri (after (after their their discoverer) discoverer) bodies. Unless the disease disease is allowed to run its its course course or into the late stages the Neg1·i Negri bodies may not be sufficiently sufficiently numerous numerous to be observed. observed. In In this case case confirmation confirmation may be obtained obtained by inoculating inoculating the brains brains of of mice with brain brain material material from from the suspect suspect animal. Suspect animals animals are submitted to the laboratory laboratory because of of biting biting someone, abnormal abnormal behavior, behavior, or or being found found freshly freshly dead dead of of undeterminable undeterminable cause. Game department department personnel personnel,, because because of of the nature nature of of their their work and and knowledge knowledge of of wildlife, can provide aa valuable service service within the realm realm of of their their responsibility ubmitsibility in recognizing recognizing aa suspect suspect animal and and ssubmitting it to to the Laboratory. Laboratory. From field observations observations they may determine determine whether control control is indicated, indicated, and cooperate cooperate with the U, U. S, S. Fish Fish and and Wildlife Service Service in in carrying rol program carrying out a cont control program against against the affected species. species. Control pr:ograms programs would would be initiated initiated to concontain and and prevent prevent the spread spread of of rabies rabies especially especially if if aa of susceptible susceptible animals animals existed existed in high population o.f surrounding areas. areas. surrounding Any suspect suspect animal encountered encountered by by department department Any personnel should should be handled as follows: 1) 1) If If the personnel animal is is taken alive, especially especially after after biting biting someanimal proof-pen or one, one, it should be confined confined in an escapeescape-proof·pen or compartment compartment and and public health authorities authorities notified. 2) 2) 1f If the animal must be killed it should not be shot in the head. The The head should be cut off off and packed in in (do not freeze), freeze), but but before submitting submitting to the wet ice (do Department Laboratory, Laboratory, State Office Office State Health Department Building Building in Denver, Dr. Dr. Martin Martin Baum Baum of of the VeteriVeteriServices Section Section of of the State Health Department Department nary Services should be be contacted by by phone, phone, stating stating location and and details, details, then, if they they are are interested, interested, obtain further further instructions.. instructions. 3) 3) In the the event event a freshly freshly dead animal animal is encounter ed in the field, encountered field, the possibility possibility of of gunshot, being hit by car, car, or or other other accident accident should be ruled ruled out out before before i.t it is considered considered as a rabies rabies suspect suspect and if possible mor tem per formed to determine possible aa postpost-mortem performed determine any other other obvious obvious cause cause of death. Sy:rnptoms might indicate Symptoms which might indicate rabies rabies ar aree of two types-the "furious types--the "furious"11 and the "dumb" "dumb" form. form. In the first restlessness, irr itability, tendency to first there there is restlessness, irritability, wander wander,, tendency to snap snap or or to seek seek out dar darkk corners. corners. Later Later aa partial partial paralysis, paralysis, staggering staggering gait, and finally complete paralysis paralysis and death. death. With the dumb form the only paralytic; the only important important symptoms symptoms may be paralytic; animal may not be able to close close its its jaw. Loss of of flesh flesh,, or emaciation emaciation is apparent apparent even with the short. short course course of of th.e the disease disease from from 33-77 days. days. The presence presence of of unusual items items in the stomach stomach on post mortem mortem examination may may suggest suggest rabies, rabies, but there there is no characcharacte ristic posit teristic post mortem mortem finding to diagnose rabies. rabies. One One of of o,ur our jobs as wildlife managers managers is to deterdetermine what constitutes constitutes a healthy productivepopulation, productive population, and and then work to maintain maintain this this condition through through harvest oductive management, management.techniques. harvest or or other other pr productive techniques. This applie1s applies in the control control of sylvatic sylvatic rabies rabies and to the the fox, skunk, and coyote reservoir reservoir populations populations in particular. r ograms are particular. Control Control pprograms are expensi:ve expensive and regulation ,of of these populations through hunting or or regulation these populations trapping is to be encouraged. encouraged. trapping there were In In March March 1954 1954 there were 8 cases cases of rabies rabies ininvolving dogs, dogs, cats, cats, cattle cattle and hogs at at the little little town town of Segundo Segundo west west of Trinidad Trinidad in Las Las Animas County. County. of Control sonnel of the Game and Control was instituted instituted by per personnel Fish Department U. S. Fish Department and the U. Fish and Wildlife Service andl were reported and no further further cases cases were reported in this this area. area. Richard Fillmore Richard E. Pillmore U.S. Fish Fish and Wildlife Service Service U.S. Denver Denver Wildlife Research Research Laboratory Laboratory Reissued July, July, 1965, 1965, from from original original Reissued dated dated March March 15, 1959 1959 ��Outdoor Facts .• '" p PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO COLO GAME, FISH and PARKS AM .DEPT. Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet umber 13 Number LUNGWORM A AND LAMBS LUNGWORM D LAMBS Pass-Sand Creek Creek country of of the In the Music Pass-Sand Cristo Range there there are some bighorn Sangre de Cristo C. 0. O. Dan Riggs most most of the sheep. According to W. W. C. area have lambs with them early early in the ewes in this area summer, but only only a few few of of these these ewes still still have have summer, lambs with them by fall. During the bighorn hunting season, I believe 1956, some of the hunters hunters season, believe it was 1956, catch .a a lamb and and then release release it--they it--they were able to catch have caught a healthy lamb! lamb! Obviously, could never h.ave For the Crystal Crystal something is happening to the lambs. lambs. For Creek herd in Wyoming, Wyoming, lioness Honess and and Frost Frost (1942) (1942) Creek stated that 50% 50%of after reaching reaching an age stated of the lambs die after of about six weeks. Tltis This loss loss was attributed attributed to a of bacterial pneumonia of a contagious nature. bacterial nature. Some failure in bighorn lamb crops such failure crops has been known known suspected in various various localities localities for years, years, but has or suspected been explai explained predation, wet weather, weather, disease, disease, ned by predation, poor range, and nutrition. nutrition. Actually, all of these these factors probably play a part, part, but what is the most tors important or key factor? factor? important In a parasitology parasitology text by Monnig Monnig we we encountered encountered the statement statement that prenatal prenatal infection (becoming inbefore birth) occurs with Dictyocaulus infecfected before birth) occm:s tions, and have wondered if similar similar infection with tions, Protostrongylus m might possible explanaProtostrongylus ight not offer a possible loss. In February, February, 1940 1940 a bighorn tion for this lamb loss. "Clarissa," was penned at the City Park Park ewe, named "Clarissa," Zoo in Denver, Colorado where she had a lamb born Zoo born 1. Herb Wallace, Wallace, technician technician for the Game and on June 1. Fish Department Department at the time, time, visited visited the lamb on Fish July 19 19 and observed observed that the lamb was in poor condition with a rough coat, coughed coughed and and breathed breathed with and exertion. found to be difficulty and exertion. The lamb was found spite of the fact the pen infected with lungworm, in spite was dry and no no snail snail intermediate intermediate hosts known known to be present. believed from this experience experience that present. Wallace believed no intermediate intermediate host was necessary necessary and that no that ProtoProtostrongylus stilesi stilesi had a direct direct life cycle like like Dictystrongv.lus ocaulus. ocaulus. From the Buffalo Buffalo Peaks Peaks herd I collected From collected droppings droppings lambs, probably probably not more than a month of age, from lambs, and recovered recovered lungworm larvae from them. It was larvae from established that first-stage first-stage larvae larvae failed failed to change established appearance outside of snails snails and and that when these these in appearance larvae were fed to a sheep they could be recovered recovered larvae again from the droppings of the sheep, unchanged. good evidence that that an intermediate intermediate host is This is good essential for infection with Protostrongylus. essential Protostrongylus. near In Wyoming, Wyoming, six bighorn ewes were trapped trapped near January 1956 1956 and penned at the Sybille Dubois in January Station in a large large enclosure enclosure which had had no no use by Station livestock for several several years. years. Five of these livestock these ewes had lambs, which Kenneth Kenneth Winter found passing lungworm lambs, Winter found passing lungworm larvae in the feces when when he checked them in July. The larvae were noticeably noticeably larger larger lambs did well, however, and were trapped from the same same than lambs among the sheep sheep trapped locality as the others others in January January 1.9-57. 1957. All were locality together, and and in February February disease disease took its penned together, toll of this herd, but this loss loss was not confined to 1958). When When I visited visited the Sybille Station lambs (Post, 1958). in February February about the time the first first sheep died, Dr. Honess and and I found snail hosts hosts within the enclosure enclosure lioness found snail and along the creek. available evidence suggests suggests creek. All available Protostrongylus might that prenatal prenatal infection with Protostrongylus occur, but it is inconclusive. inconclusive. occur, From the Rampart Range Range herd of bighorns bighorns two From trapped--"Lucy" January 23, 23, 1958 1958 and ewes were trapped-"Lucy 11 in January "Alice" on February 4, 4,1958 Glen Eyrie Eyrie and penned "Alice" on February 1958 at Glen Denver Federal Federal Center third ewe ewe was caught at the Denyer Center (a third escaped over the eight-foot enclosure but escaped eight-foot fence). The enclosure was about .3 acre acre in area no snail snail hosts area and no hosts could be found within. Lucy had her lamb on on May 23 23 and Alice found not until July 2. Both of the lambs died; Lucy's Lucy's on 13 and Alice' Alice'ss on Fecal samples samples were July 13 on July 7. Fecal were collected almost almost daily, larvae could collected daily, and no lungworm larvae be demonstrated demonstrated until June 23 23 following which some larvae recovered from each of of the samples, samples, but larvae were recovered only in small small numbers. numbers. For For two weeks before before Lucy's Lucy's only lamb died, it was apparent apparent that it was not doing so before death it stood and allowed well, and four days before itself to be caught after after running only twice around the itself progressively weaker, coughed while pen. It grew progressively weaker, coughed appeared stunted feeding and finally died. This lamb appeared but was not emaciated. emaciated. Autopsy Autopsy failed failed to show a good good cause for death, with only the lungs appearing appearing somesomewhat more consolidated in texture texture than than normal normal but no no more consolidated found. A dorsal dorsal hypostatic hypostatic congestion pneumonia was found. position of lamb after also evident. due to position after death was also Posterior tips of of the lungs were found found heavily inPosterior Protostrongylus stilesi stilesi and and no fected with lungworm, Protostrongvlus �bacteria bacteria were cultured cultured from the media media inoculated. inoculated. Another lamb lamb was picked up in the Buffalo Peaks Peaks area area when when only only aa few few hours old and and still still unable unable to follow follow the ewe. This lamb has been penned penned at at the Cheyenne Cheyenne Mountain Zoo with aa domestic domestic milk milk goat as aa foster foster mother. mother. There There has has been no contact with an infected infected bighorn sheep sheep since its birth. birth. The Cheyenne Cheyenne Mountain Zoo Zoo has not had had aa bighorn sheep sheep since since the 1930's 1930's and the hybrid sheep in the adjacent adjacent pen to to the goat goat and lamb are are not infected with lungworm (re(repeated fecal checks have been made and and son1e some hybrids hybrids have been used as experimental experimental animals animals where infection has been established established artificially artificially in in only one one out out of of seven animals animals exposed.) exposed.) Search Search within this enclosure closure failed failed to reveal reveal any any snail snail hosts. hosts. Yet fecal samples samples (collection was much less less frequent frequent than for lambs in Denver, only only about once aa week or less) less) were were collected collected on on June 23, just just thirty thirty days after after )Jirth, birth, th.ree three lungworm larvae larvae were were recovered recovered and and from each sample sample since since that that date some larvae larvae have been recovered. recovered. last example, example, with the other evidence, is This last strong argument argument for the existence existence of of prenatal prenatal infecinfecstrong delay tion of bighorn lambs with this lungworm. The delay thirty days from birth birth witil until the larvae larvae first first of about thirty appear in the feces feces is probably related related to some appear physiological physiological need of the parasite parasite that for their their development to the adult stage stage the lungs lungs they inhabit be functional. functional. Another possibility possibility is a resistance resistance mechanism of the infected infected ewe ewe in in which which there there is a mechanism chemical chemical inhibition of the infected larvae's larvae's development which may be transmitted ing its transmitted to the lamb lamb dur during ut-erine life as aa fetus. fetus. For the lamb to become infected, the infectiveinfectiveFor larvae must must get into the blood circulation circulation of of the ewe, larvae come come into into contact contact with the placenta, placenta, penetrate penetrate it, and enter fetus, Whichenter the separate separate blood supply of the fetus. ever, ever, the mechanism mechanism for delaying delaying the development development o[ of the lungwo:rm lungworm larvae larvae in the fetus, fetus, the circwnstances circumstances are are probably probably such such that that all larvae larvae present present may develop at prenatal dose may, at the same same time. time. The size size of this thfs prenatal therefore, therefore, have a direct direct bearing bearing on the survival survival chance been demonstrated, chance of 1the lamb. Tttis This has not been demonstrated, but certairnly burden of a heavy lungworm infeccertainly the burden infection increa.ses increases the obstacles obstacles to survival survival or or impairs impairs to some extent extent its its chances chances of overcoming overcoming other other obstacles cles which which each lamb must must face. We are, are, however, still problem of knowing knowing what relationstill faced faced w:ith with the problem relationsship hip exists exists between lungworm infection and mortality. mortality. If If the lungworm lungworm infection infection caused the death death of the penned lamb from from the Rampart Rampart Range herd herd then it might that the survival might be expected expected that survival of the wild lambs lambs in the mother would also mother herd would also be affected. affected. With this this in mind, the numbers numbers of lambs were were tallied tallied among the sheep earning this year coming down down on the lawns this year at Glen Eyrie. best classified Eyrie. The The best classified count, free free of any duplication was: llO r ams, 23 10 rams, 23 ewes, and 17 17 lambs. lambs. There There is is considerable difference difference in the size size of these these lambs lambs co11siderable and and some have been observed observed coughing. There There has been no ia:ilure failure of the lamb crop as might have been expected expected if lungworm infection infection had caused caused any signifsignificant icant mort:ality; mortality; however, in 1957 1957 the lamb crop was at least least 12 12 lambslambs--over half of which were were known at -over hall known to be males, yearling rams males, yet only 2 yearling rams have been observed year. This served this this year. This might indicate indicate the occurrence occurrence of mortality among this of significant significant mortality this age group during during the spring this is speculation. spring ,or or summer summer months but but this speculation. Richard E. Pillmore Richard Fillmore U.S. U.S. Fish Fish and Wildlife Service Service Denver Wildlife Research Laboratory Research Laboratory Reissued Reissued July, July, 1965, 1965, from from original original dat ed April April 15, 1959 dated 1959 �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED H BY THE COLORADO LORAO 111.l PARKS R GAME, FISH .and , j DEPT. OE Game Information Information Leaflet Number Game Leaflet Number 14 EFFECTS ON PHEASANTS OF CERTAIN CERTAIN INSECTICIDES INSECTICIDES APPLIED EFFECTS O PHEASANTS OF APPLIED UNDER MODIFIED FIELD CO CONDITIONS IN EASTER EASTERN COLORADO: U DER MODIFIED FIELD DITIO S IN COLORADO : A THESIS THESIS SUMMARY 1/ 1/ A SUMMARY initiated in June, 1958, 1958, with the This study was initiated cooperation of of tthe Fish and cooperation he Colorado Colorado State Game, Grune, Fish Parks Department Colorado State University University Parks Department and the Colorado investigate the effects effects of of aldrin, aldrin, dieldriil, DDD, to investigate dieldrin, DDD., endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor, parathion, onpheasendrin, parathion, and toxaphene on pheas(Phasianus colchicus colchicus L.) under under field conditions. conditions. ants (Phasianus Spray concentrations concentrations in ounces per acre were: were: aldrin, per acre aldrin, 4; dieldrin, dieldrin, 3 and 6; 6; DDD, DDD, 24; endrin, 6,5 6.5 and 2 and 4; 24; endrin, 13; heptachlor, heptachlor, 4; 4; parathion, parathion, 8; and toxaphene, 12, 12, ~4, z4, 13; 8; and and 48. 1958, thirty-four pheasants of mixed ages and In 1958, thirty- four pheasants sex from from the Experimental Bird Farm Farm at Rocky sex Experimental Game Bird Ford, used in each of nine spray tests Ford, Colorado, were were used spray tests regular crop crop treatments. conducted along with the regular treatments. The chemicals mentioned above were used with the excepexcepchemicals heptachlor. The birds birds were tion of o!: heptachlor. were weighed before before spraying and at one and three three weeks after spraying. spraying after spraying. Three 4- by 88-foot pens and one control control pen of the Three oot _pens same size were used to hold the birds during the same size were birds during spraying tests. tests. There There was only one significant significant weight spraying after spraying dieldrinchange. At one week after spraying the ctieldrinsprayed chicks gained less less weight than the control sprayed chicks control birds. At three three weeks there birds. there was no difference difference bebeof the two sets sets of chicks, chicks. tween the weights of Insects were collected 1958 in sprayed sprayed and fasects collected in 1958 unsprayed fields. fields. Because Because of the widespread widespread grassgrassw1sprayed hopper-control program, unsprayed unsprayed fields were difhopper-control program, fields were find,, and only descriptive descriptive rather ficult to find. rather than comparative data data were were collected. collected. The sprayed sprayed pheasants pheasants parative were held over over winter winter for productivity productivity tests tests the were spring, and the study was terminated following spring, terminated for year. the year. In the summer 1959, the sspraying pheasants summer of 1959, praying of pheasants determining the effects effects of of repeated repeated was aimed at determining applications of of insecticides. insecticides. With the exception applications exception of parathion and DOD, DDD, all the chemicals chemicals mentioned parathion previously were were applied three times, each at interpreviously three times, interof 10 10 days. One One large large test feet, vals of test pen, 4 by 8 by 24 feet, and one control control pen, 4 by 8 by 8 feet, feet, were and were used. used. Twenty-six pheasants, 18 young, young, 6 hens, and 2 cocks Twenty-six pheasants, 18 1lThe thesis is available available from from the Colorado state State UniThe thesis versity library, library, Fort Collins, Colorado. Colorado. versity Fort Collins, test were before they were placed in in each test were weighed before were placed the pens and immediately return to the immediately upon their their return Bird Farm. Farm. When were compared compared with Bird When the treatments treatments were control, it it was found found that sprayed with the control, that the adults adults sprayed endrin lost more weight than the the endrin lost significantly significantly more control birds. In a comparison control birds. lo comparison of chemicals, chemicals adults adults sprayed witb with endrin endrin and toxaphene lost lost significantly sprayed significantly more weight than those sprayed with heptachlor. more those sprayed heptachlor. were sprayed Five adult pheasants pheasants were sprayed and killed killed with massive doses doses of aldrin, aldrin, dieldrin, dieldrin, endrin, massive endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor, and toxaphene. Clinical Clinical autopsy failed gross failed to show gross lesions, chemical analysis analysis was not satisfactory satisfactory lesions, and chemical because the fat contaminated tissues that because contaminated the other other tissues that had been retained. retained. The 1959 1959 insect insect study was designed designed to determine determine the perperiod recovery of an iniod of time time necessary necessary for for recovery sect population after after spraying. spraying. Collections sect Collections were were made before spraying one-week intervals intervals thereafter before spraying and at one-week thereafter until the population population recovered numbers or or the until recovered its its numbers .field field was harvested. harvested. each field field were were results of the collections collections in each The results graphed. Twenty-seven Twenty-seven days was the longest longest period period graphed. observed that necessary for for recovery observed that was necessary recovery of the levels of ins insect field to the pre-spray pre-spray levels ect numbers. numbers. Several fields were harvested harvested before before recovery recovery had Several fields were occurred. The insect insect families families responded oc·cwred. responded to the insecticides with certain certain patterns. most typical typical secticides patterns. The most pattern of response response was that pattern that the families families in low numnwnbers rremained bers emained low or or disappeared, disappeared, and that that a new population of families families appeared appeared after after spraying. spraying. This population pattern may also also reflect reflect normal normal succession succession of insect insect pattern families during during the summer. summer. No patterns of families No definite definite patterns response appeared appeared at the other population levels. levels. response other population A selected selected number number of pheasants pheasants from from the 1958 1958 spraying tests tests were were investigated investigated for effects spraying effects of the insecticides on their their reproductive reproductive potential. insecticides potential. The eggs were collected collected and incubated, incubated, and their were their fertility fertility and hatchability determined. The data data were were separated separated hatchability determined. categories: total total eggs per into these these categories: per bird, bird, eggs collected per per hen, eggs eaten eaten per per bird, bird, cull eggs per per lected number of chicks hen, and number chicks per per hen; and at hatching, hatching, number chicks, number number of dead chicks, number of crippled crippled chicks, chicks, �number number of pipped eggs, eggs, and number of healthy healthy chicks. chicks. There was a highly significant significant difference difference between between the There test test and control control pens in total total eggs produced produced per per bird, bird, eggs collected collected per per hen, and eggs eaten eaten per per bird. bird. Endrin Endrin at 6.5 ounces per per acre acre showed the greatest greatest deviation deviation downward from from the expected expected or control control numbers. numbers. There There was a significant significant difference difference between between the expected expected and and observed observed numbers numbers of birds birds dead at batching. hatching. However, except except for endrin endrin at 13 13 ounces per per acre, acre, there there were were more more deaths deaths from from the control control than test test eggs. In addition to the egg productivity productivity test, test, the mortality mortality rate rate of the chicks chicks that were were batched hatched was observed observed for for three three weeks. weeks. There There was a highly signifsignificant icant difference difference between the observed observed and and expected expected numbers of birds birds dying in the three three weeks. The birds birds numbers sprayed sprayed with aldrin aldrin at two ounces per per acre acre had the largest largest number number of dead chicks. chicks. The number number of pheaspheasavailable for the productivity productivity tests tests was necesnecesants available sarily sarily small small and may not indicate indicate the total total reproducreproductive effects effects of the insecticides. insecticides. tive In In conclusion, conclusion, it appears appears from the results results of this this study that that the concentrations concentrations of insecticides insecticides studied studied do not have severe severe deleterious deleterious effects effects on on pheasants pheasants in Colorado. Colorado. James James R. Tigner Tigner U.S. Fish Fish and Wildlife Service Service Denver Denver Wildlife Research Research Laboratory Laboratory Revised, expanded and reissued reissued Revised, 1965, from from original original dated July, 1965, 1959 June 15, 1959 �Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED OLORADO PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE C COLORADO ~, DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES 1 DIVISION DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS ~~ • I Number15 Number 15 Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet AGING AGING PHEASANT PHEASANT EMBRYOS EMBRYOS The ability to age embryos embryos in in unhatched pheasant pheasant eggs may be be of of value in several several instances. instances. Farmers Farmers may seek advice on on hatching and rearing rearing pheasants pheasants from eggs eggs salvaged salvaged from nests nests destroyed destroyed during the mowing mowing of alfalfa. alfalfa. Aging Aging an embryo embryo in one one of of the eggs (perhaps one one with aa cracked cracked shell) from the destroyed destroyed nest nest would would enable one one to closely closely predict predict the hatching date. From From a management management standpoint, standpoint, the peak of of pheasant pheasant hatch, for any any given year, year, could be closely closely ascertained ascertained by aging embryos embryos in eggs from about about a dozen nests oyed in hayfields. nests destr destroyed hayfields. Pheasant Pheasant producproduction on irrigated irrigated lands usually usually is better better when the peak of hatching precedes precedes the peak of of alfalfa alfalfa mowing. mowing. The The following key for field aging pheasant pheasant embryos embryos was prepared prepared in cooperation cooperation with Harry Harry JJ., Figge, Colorado Game, Fish, Fish, and Parks Parks Department; Department; Dr. Lee E. Yeager, Colorado Colorado Cooperative Cooperative Wildlife Research Research Unit; Unit; and and Verna Verna M. M. Zander, Zander, Zoology Zoology Department, Department, University. Colorado State University. • 20 • • 22 Figure Figure 1.--P!heasant l.--Pheasant embryo embryo development development from from first first day after after incubation starts starts to date of hatching. �A A KEY KEY FOR FOR FIELD FIELD AGING OF OF PHEASANT PHEASANT EMBRYOS EMBRYOS Age Age in in Days Days Embryo Embryo without without dark dark pigmented pigmented feathers feathers Embryo Embryo not not flexed, flexed, (straight (straight and and inconspicu0us) inconspicuous) Embryo . • , . ., .• ., ., ., ..•.. . ., 1 Embryo less less than than 44 mm. mm. long, long, blood blood not not showilng showing ..•••• 1 Embryo Embryo 44 mm. mm, long, long, slightly slightly larger larger at at anterior anterior end, end, blood blood showing. showing .. . 2 Embryo Embryo partially partially or or completely completely flexed flexed Embryo . . . . . . . . . . . •• Embryo partially partially flexed, flexed, head head only only . ••....•..... , , ., , ...... . . ., ... . 3 Embryo Embryo completely completely flexed, flexed, head head and and tail tail Limb Limb (wing (wing and and feet) feet) buds buds not not readily readily discernible discernible Eyes . . . . . . . . . ., •, ., ., ., •, ..• . 4 Eyes not not showing showing dark dark pigment. pigment •....••••• Eyes . . • . •, .••.. . . . . . . . . • . . • 5 Eyes showing showing dark dark pigment pigment .••••. Limb Limb (wing (wing and and feet) feet) buds buds readily readily disce:rnible discernible Egg Egg tooth tooth absent absent Eye 6 Eye region region (dark (dark portion) portion) less less than than 2 mm. mm. in in diam. diam. Eye Eye region region (dark (dark portion) portion) 2 mm. mm. in in diam. diam. or or more. more, Eye Eye region region 3 mm. mm. in in diam. diam. . • . .• .... , •, , , . ., 7 Eye .. , , , . . . 8 Eye region region 4 mm. mm. in in cliam. diam. . .. •. .,"""" Egg Egg tooth tooth present present (small) (small) T oes evident (webbed Toes evident but but not not separated separated (webbed , ., •" • 9 separated (partially) .. .... . . ., .• , , , . ., , •, ., 10 10 (partially) TToes oes separated Embryo Embryo showing showing dark.pigmented dark, pigmented feathers feathers Embryo (eye Embryo not not fully fully feathered feathered (eye not not showing showing dark dark pigmented pigmented feathers) feathers) Edge of of eyelid eyelid not not feathered feathered Edge Top of head head without without feathers feathers Top Feathers esent on tail) tail) ... Feathers absent absent on back back (pr (present .•.••..•... . . . . , ., 11 11 Feathers on back back and and tail tail .•....•.•.. , , .. •• . , ., ., ., ., ., ., 12 Feathers , . . . . . . . . •. Top of of head head showing showing evidence evidence of feathers feathers Top Feathers absent absent on anterior anterior edge edge of of ear ear openi opening Feathers ng ..... . •, , •, 13 Feathers Feathers showing showing on anterior anterior edg1~ edge of ear ear opening opening Dark Dark feather feather band band not not showing showing under under eye eye region region .. 14 14 Dark Dark feather feather band band showing showing under under eye eye region region. . . . •. 15 Edge Edge of eyelid eyelid feathered feathered Feathers covering 1t1t not well developed Feathers covering eye eye region region present present bbut not well developed .•. . 16 Feathers covering .. . . ... .,. , . 17 Feathers covering eye eye region region well well developed developed .. , . ...•.• Embryo Embryo fully fully feathered feathered (eye (eye covering, covering, region region around around ea:r ear opening, opening, and and rest rest of body body showing showing dark dark pigmented pigmented feathers) feathers) Dark pigment pigment at at base base of toe-nails toe-nails not conspic1LJ.ous conspicuous Dark not Bottom of of feet feet not not showing showing definite definite cross cross markings markings , , ., .. , , 18 Bottom .• , .• •• Bottom of of feet feet with with definite definite cross cross markings markings Bottom Bottom granular . . . ,,. . 19 Bottom of of feet feet not not conspicuously conspicuously granular ..... . . , .••• Bottom of of feet feet appearing appearing granular granular Bottom Edges not Edges of toe-nails toe-nails not appearing appearing sharp sharp . .•.. . , .•.... . . 20 20 Edges of toe-nails toe-nails appearing shal'p sharp Edges appearing ...... . . .".,• . . ..• 21 Dark nails Dark pigment pigment present present at at base base of toetoe-nails Upper poinb'1CI . . . ., . , 22 Upper mandible mandible not not conspicuously conspicuously pointed .., . ...•.. . . ., .•..• Upper to hatch Upper mandible mandible pointed, pointed, chick chick well well deveilopect, developed, ready ready to hatch • 23 Wayne W. W. Sandfort Sandfort Wayne Game Game Manager Manager Reissued July July 1965 1965 from from original original Reissued dated September September 1, 1, 1957 1957 dated �" Outdoor Facts p C L RADO GAME, GAME;. flC' I ar KS DEPT. COLORADO FISH and !"'A PARKS Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet ld .~ PUBLISHED BY THE UBLISHED BV T --IE .. Number 16 Number16 INCUBATION, BROODING, AND AND CARE CARE OF PHEASANTS INCUBATION, BROODING, OF PHEASANTS information is primarily primarily for the inThe following information who may wish to incubate and rear rear small small dividual who numbers of pheasants. pheasants. numbers source of of eggs may vary, vary, from those Eggs. The source from those from destroyed destroyed nests picked up in the field from nests to those purchased from pprivate breeding farms. farms. purchased rivate breeding Care of of Eggs. Extreme Extreme care care must must be taken taken with Care pheasant eggs gathered gathered from from destroyed destroyed nests nests to keep pheasant placed in an incubator, incubator, them warm until they can be placed as they have probably probably started started incubating. incubating. They should other available available be wrapped iimmediately mmediately in a cloth or other material that that will keep them from chilling. Pheasant Pheasant material purchased fr from breeder must must be kept eggs purchased om a private private breeder preferably 50 550 F. They may be stored stored cool, preferably 50°0 to 55o several days at this temperature, temperature, but should be several brought up to room temperature temperature before before being placed placed brought in tthe incubator. he incubator. Incubators. T There are two types of of small small mechanmechanIncubators. here are incubators suitable small numbers numbers of of pheaspheasical incubators suitable for small still air incubator incubator is most suitable suitable for ant eggs. The .st ill air smaller numbers numbers of of pheasant pheasant eggs, up to 50, 50, and the smaller small forced forced air sizes which would would bold hold small air incubators incubators in sizes 150 to 500 500 pheasant 150 pheasant eggs. Incubation. T The incubator should be put into operoperIncubation. he incubator least 24 24 hours before the eggs are are to be ation at least hours before placed still air air should be operated placed in it. The still operated at 0 to 102°F. 101-1/22° 1020F. Place Place the thermometer 101-1/ thermometer in the midst of of the eggs, not near near the outside wall or door. midst Place the thermometer thermometer bulb so that level with Place that it is level the top of the· the eggs, eggs. At this this location temperature location a teQJ.perature 0 to 102° reading of of 101 101-1/2 1020 F. should give good rereading - 1/2° good results. The humidity reading reading on the relative relative side side of sults. hydrometer should be kept at about 75 the wet bulb hydrometer 75 percent during incubation, incubation, and at about 82 82 percent percent during percent during the hatching period. period. Eggs should be turned turned during six times times daily. Do not turn after the twentyabout six turn after second day. forced air air or or fan type incubator incubator should be The forced operated at a temperature temperature of 99-3/ 40F. during operated 99- 3/ 4°F. during incu0 to 99-1/ 20F. during during the hatching bation and 99-1/4 99- 1/ 4o 99- 1/ 2°F. period. On On this this type of incubator incubator the hydrometer hydrometer period. usually has a direct direct or relative relative reading reading on the left usually left corresponding wet bulb reading reading on the right right side and corresponding side. reading should be kept at about 86 86 side. The wet bulb reading percent during during incubation incubation and about 90 percent during percent percent during hatching period. period. This type incubator incubator should be the hatching filled to at least least half of its egg capacity capacity each each time it filled set, for be.st best incubating incubating results. results. is set, Pheasant eggs start start to hatch on the Hatching. Pheasant twenty-third tempertwenty-third day of incubation. incubation. therefore therefore the temper0, ature should be lowered lowered one-half one-half degree, 99-1/44o, ature degree, to 99-1/ raised from from 86 86 percent percent to 90 percent percent and the humidity raised incubation. Allow Allow 72 72 on the twenty-second twenty- second day of incubation. hours for eggs to hatch and chicks chicks to dry off after after hours start hatching. hatching. they start that eggs have been picked up from from In the event that destroyed nests nests and incubated, incubated, it is impossible impossible to tell tell destroyed therefore, the temperature temperature when they will hatch; therefore, lowered and the humidity first should be lowered humidity raised raised at the first signs of pipping. signs Brooder Space. Any Any small small building tight Brooder building that is tight enough to keep predators predators out and small small birds birds in will for a brooder brooder house. All windows that that can be do for ventilation, and all other openings, should opened for ventilation, other openings, covered with 1/ 1/44 inch or 1/2 inch metal be covered metal hardware hardware brooder house must must be well cleaned cleaned and cloth. The brooder disinfected. About clean sand sand should disinfected. About one-half one-half inch of clean spread on the floor floor for litter. more be spread litter. Do Do not crowd more chicks per per square square foot of brooder than two to three three chicks brooder space. space. Hovers. Small electric poultry poultry hovers hovers are are very very Hovers. Small electric satisfactory for brooding pheasant chicks. satisfactory brooding pheasant chicks. The therthermometer mometer should be hung with the bulb about 2-1/2 2-1/2 inches from from the floor, floor, facing inches facing away ffrom r om the heat elements. temperature under under the hover at elements. Keep the temperature 97 degrees F F.. for first week. Then gradually gradually drop drop 97 degrees for the first the temperature temperature five degrees per week for the next degrees per three weeks. weeks. three Feed Care of Chicks. require a high Feed and Care Chicks. Pheasants Pheasants require protein 28 percent protein feed. They should have about a 28 percent protein starter, preferably bird starter, protein starter, preferably game bird starter. for Turkey starter starter may be used about two weeks. Turkey used if game bird available. If turkey turkey starter starter is used, it it bird feed is not available. for about four weeks, then then changed to a should be fed for �grower feed of about 24 percent percent to 26 percent protein protein grower 26 percent until the birds are are about 14 14 to 16 16 weeks old. A good until tbe birds scratch grain mixture should should be fed following this. scratch grain mixture this. Clean, fresh fresh water water should should be kept before birds at before the birds all times. times. around the sides sides of the coop to keep rain drainaround r1il1 from from drainnest. In case case of dry weather, weather, water water ing into the nest. should be sprinkled sprinkled on the ground around the outside outside moist. of the coop, enough to keep the ground moist. Chicks. Confine the chicks chicks by using 1/2Confining Chicks. using 1/ 2mesh hardware hardware cloth flexible cardboard cardboard about inch mesh cloth or flexible 18 inches inches high, extended circle extended on edge, making a circle 18 six feet feet in diameter diameter around the hover. about six hover. This circle from piling pilingup corners. circle is to keep the chicks chicks from up in corners. this when the chicks chicks start start to ily fly over Remove this over it. A small small covered covered pen about two feet feet square square should be attached fresh clean attached to the coop where where feed and fresh water are are available available so that water that the hen can come off the nest and feed. Coop Coop and pen should have mid-day mid-day nest shade. shade. Covered covered pen should be attached attached to Covered Pen. A covered the brooder brooder house so that that as soon as the ring ring a-round around removed the birds birds can be let let outside outside hover is removed the hover during the warm warm part place feed during part of the day. Always place water in the pen when the birds are let let out of the and water bird$ are brooder From five to eigh,t eight square square feet feet of pen brooder house. From space should be allowed allowed for each bird bird until until they are are space 14 to 16 16 weeks of age. The covered covered pen should about 14 constructed of 1-inch 1-inch mesh poultry wire wire about six six be constructed mesh poultry vermin-proof feet high. It is necessary necessary to verminproof the pen where it comes comes in contact contact with the grouncJ.. ground. One One methmethwhere od is is to turn turn the poultry wire out on on top of the ground od poultry wire from 12 12 to 18 18 inches, secure it to the ground with inches, and secure stakes or heavy boards. boards. This vermin-proofing vermin-proofing is to stakes keep dogs dogs,, skunks, skunks, foxes, etc. etc.,, from digging under keep under to birds. get to the birds. Partridge and Quail. The foregoing foregoing proceChukar Partridge procedures may be applied applied to the hatching hatching and brooding brooding of dures chukar partridge partridge and quail, except except that these two chukar that these species take only 22 22 days of incubation before they species incubation before start to hatch, instead also suggested suggested that that start instead of 23. It is also ring around the hover when confining quail chicks chicks the ring hover should be 1/ 1/4-inch hardware cloth cloth,1 instead instead of 4- inch mesh mesh hardware 1/2-inch, because newly hatched hatched chicks chicks cancan--and inch, because -and the 1/2will--go 1/2-inch will- go through through 1/ 2-inch openings. Incubatin!; an:! and Brooding 13rooding with Domestic Domestic Hens. If Incubating domestic hens are are used, used, Bantams Bantams are are the most domestic most desirable for incubating incubating pheasant sirable pheasant eggs and brooding brooding the chicks. For small coop about about. two feet chicks. For incubating, incubating, a small square with no bottom bottom in it, but provided square provided with a weather-proof placed on the ground, on weatherproo,f top, should be placed topsoil. First First hollow out a nest center, clean topsoil. nest in the center, about three three inches inches deep, then then place place a little little hay or straw in the nest. nest. If time time permits, straw permits, the broody hen beu sit on artificial artificial eggs for two or should be allowed to sit three days before before the pheasant placed under under three pheas ant eggs are are placed her. are a good number for a her. Nine to twelve eggs are good number Bantam to cover. cover. A little little dirt dirt should be piled up After are hatched and dried dried off, the hen After the chicks chicks are moved and attached attached and chicks chicks and the coop should be moved. covered pen on clean ground. The pen should be be to a covered 12 feet in size, size, and three three to four feet feet high, about 4 x 12 1-inch mesh poultry wire. This inch mesh poultry wire. and can be made of 1where the wire wire comes comes pen should be vermin-proofed vermin-proofed where in contact contact with the ground. Also, place 11 x 12 12 inch inch Also, place boards around the bottom of the pen. This boards on edge all around pheasant chicks chicks from escaping is to keep the pheasant escaping through through 1-inch wire and also also provides shade. the 1inch mesh mesh wire provides some shade. An opening should be made from from the coop to the pen An large enough for chicks to go in and out. When large for the chicks When the pheasant chicks are are three days old, let let them pheasant chicks three or four days access to both coop and pen, pen. However, keep the have access hen in the coop for about ten days. days. chicks sshould watered inside the The chicks hould be fed and wat ered inside coop with the hen for the first first week. Use a shallow shallow pan, such as a pie pan, for feed. As soon as the chicks chicks are tall enough to reach reach it use use a baby chick are tall chick feeder. feeder. Keep feeder feeder and waterer waterer clean times. A portion portion clean at all times. this pen at the erid end farthest farthest from from the coop should should of this with boards. boards. This provides provides shade and be .cDvered covered w.th shelter for the feed and water. water. Provide Provide a gate at this shelter this end of the pen in order order that feeding and watering that feeding watering can taken care care of from from here here after chicks are are about be taken after the chicks one week old. Place a board board about 12 12 inches inches square, square, or Place or two or three slats, slats, in one corner corner of the pen for a roost, roost, three 12 inches inches off the ground. This will give the hen about 12 chicks at times from the chicks times during during a chance to get away from the day, as sometimes sometimes the chicks chicks are are inclined pick inclined to pick her feathers. feathers. .aatt her If the weather weather is warm, taken away warm, the hen may be taken pheas:';.nts a.re are four weeks old. when the pheas;;.nts Willis G. Mansfield Mansfield Willis Experimental Bird Farm Farm Superintendent Superintendent Experimental Bird July, 1965 1965 July, �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED PU LI BY THE .o GAME, FISH and PARKS A E, FIS d P RI s COLORADO 0 DEPT. O PT . ~ Number 17 umber 17 Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information RELATIONSHIP OF PHEASANT PHEASANT WEIGHTS RELATIONSHIP OF WEIGHTS WINTER STRESS STRESS A AND STARVATION 1/ TO WINTER D STARVATION l/ Biologists studying studying the capabilities capabilities of pheasants Biologists pheas ants to withstand deep, prolonged snow snow accompanied accompanied by inwithstand tense cold agree agree on at least least one pointpoint--pheasants are tense -pheasants a.re extremely birds. They can be starved starved to death extremely hardy birds. but it isn't isn't easy! Starvation preceded by the loss loss of conStarvation is always preceded siderable body siderable body weight and in the case case of the pheasant pheasant this death-inducing death-inducing weight loss loss appears appears to be fairly fairly this constant. Since it takes takes from six to eight weeks of constant. persistently deep snow to starve pheasant, field persistently starve a pheasant, workers have ample time time to ascertain ascertain when the critcritworkers ical weight is being approached, approached, but just ical just what is this this critical weight level? level? critical 1958 South South Dakota study it was found found that In a 1958 starvation following the lloss of 47 47 cocks died from starvation oss of percent their normal normal weight. Hens persisted percent of their persisted until losses averaged averaged 40 percent. severe weight losses percent. During a severe 1960 winter same state state fatal fatal weight losses losses 1960 winter in the same were 43 43 and and 44 44 percent respectively. were percent respectively. 1960 winter biologists During the 1960 winter North North Dakota biologists found that that male pheasants after losing 38 found pheasants succumbed after percent their weight and hens following a 42 42 perpercent of their perloss. cent weight loss. Minnesota experimented with penned Minnesota researchers researchers experimented pheasants 1959 and found found that that starvation starvation occurred occurred pheasants in 1959 after a reduction reduction of slightly of the body after slightly over half of weight for both hens and cocks. During the winter winter of 1962 in Minnesota, starved cocks in the wild had lost lost 1962 Minnesota, starved 46 percent their original original body 39 percent percent and hens 46 percent of their body weights. weights. these investigations investigations it may be conservaconservaBased on these tively assumed that loses 40 percent percent tively assumed that when a pheasant pheasant loses occur. of his body body weight death will likely occur. lContribution from Federal Aid Project Project W-37-R. W-37-R. lcontribution Federal Aid 1961 Colorado biologists biologists have weighed 484 484 Since 1961 roosters averaging averaging 39.38 ounces healthy pheasant pheasant roosters each. Adult birds birds were were found to weigh about two and young of of the year. year. one-half ounces more than young Applying the 40 percent limitation we Applying percent weight loss loss limitation know of the average average cock pheasant pheasant that the condition of know that critical when his body body weight in Colorado will be critical approaches 24-ounce vicinity. vicinity. By weigru..ng weighing a ranranapproaches the 24-ounce sample of of ten or more dom sample more roosters, roosters, a field man should be able to reliably reliably measure measure the severity severity of of the food situation. situation. Similar Similar weight losses losses might also also rerefood disease, but this, this, too, is a condition which sult from disease, immediately reported. reported. should be immediately When cover has persisted period When deep snow cover persisted for a period of five weeks, accompanied accompanied by temperatures temperatures below of freezing in the daytime daytime and much colder colder than freezing t:han that at night, field personnel personnel should be on the look out for symptoms and conditions: conditions: the following symptoms appearance of of pheasants: Actions and appearance pheasants: As starvation starvation advances advances following a month of of food deprivation, the birds very short short deprivation, birds are are able to fly only very distances. They appear appear listless listless and drowsy and somesomedistances. times collapse collapse after after running short short distances. distances. In the times stages of starvation starvation they seldom can fly at all. late stages Breast Breast condition: breast contour contour will be wedge wedge shaped shaped with the The breast relative condition, keel very prominent. prominent. This is a relative gradually dissipates dissipates however, for the breast breast meat gradually during the lengthy period period it takes to starve starve a pheasant. during pheasant. Presence of fat on carcass: carcass: Presence of A pheasant last stages stages of starvastarvapheasant approaching approaching the last Best places tion has little little or no fat on the carcass. carcass. Best places to check for the presence are the back, crop, crop, presence of fat are organs in the abdominal cavity. and around the organs �gizzard: Crop and gizzard: Examination of a starving starving pheasant reveal Examination pheasant will reveal these digestive digestive tract tract oi•gans organs are very that these are empty, or very nearly empty, except except for grit and ice. The gizzard gizzard nearly for grit appearance. lining may be black black in appearance. Body weights weights:: Body concerned until the average average weights Don't be too concerned roosters drop below 30 ounces (28 (28 ounces for of adult roosters young males). males). Start Start worrying worrying when the average young average hen ounces. 23 ounces. weight goes below 23 Swope Harold M. Swope Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher Associate July, 196 1965 July, 5 �Outdoor Facts LI PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO GAME, Fl FISH PARKS OEP DEPT.. H and nd PA 0 0 ADO GA l d· ' ." Number 18 18 Number Game Information. Information Leaflet Game Leaflet THE HISTORY. HISTORY, FUNCTION A AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FUNCTION D ESTABLISHMENT OF EXCLOSURES IN COLORADO COLORADO BIG GAME M MANAGEMENT 1/ EXCLOSURES IN BIG GAME AGEMENT l/ Background upon the presence presence of of livestock, livestock, Colorado Depending upon big game exclosures exclosures consist consist of either either one or two two parts. livestock are are present, present, exclosures parts. Where no livestock exclosures are usually one part part and have eight-foot eight-foot high are usually of one fences that ruminants. Two-part Two-part fences that prevent prevent use by wild ruminants. three-way exclosures have, in addition, an ador threeway exclosures joining or separate separate nearby section section fenced against against .ioining domestic exclosure prodomestic stock. This latter latter type of exclosure prototal protection of vegetation vegetation in one one area, area, game vides total protection of use only in another, another, and an open range range treatment treatment in a third area, allowing use by all ruminants, ruminants. third area, exclosures placed placed in types have had one each exclosures annual types, them. Exclosures have served served the two main functions of Exclosures demonstration and and research. research. Associated with the demonstration Associated former is the "reminder" former "reminder" effect that the plots plots have agencies. In many had upon land managers managers of of all agencies. districts, more glaring glaring examples examples continue to exist exist districts, no more dangers in laxity of purpose purpose in ruminant ruminant of the dangers management than those exclosures. management those presented presented at exclosures. EXCLOSURE TR£'-. TREATMEN E..XCLOSURE t"'1 801JN'OA~l($7~---------------. BOUNDARIES P,,",one :--------;.-' ---T _.----:------1\ Another less less common but effective effective type of of excloexdosure in operation operation is the sure tl1e let-down or drop fence that consists of barbed barbed wire wire panels. consists panels. The panels panels afford ready manipulation in providing providing easier easier access ready manipulation access by ranges where livestock livestock and game, particularly particularly elk, on ranges overlap. game use does not overlap. : Function Sagebrush vegetative types, if not the most imSagebrush vegetative types, important of game winter ranges, have, at portant component of winter ranges, least, received received considerable considerable attention attention by having had least, 22 exclosures located located in them (21 presently). Seven 22 exclosures (21 presently). exclosures have been placed in mountain brush brush types exclosures variously true mountain mavariously dominated by oakbrush, oakbrush, true hogany, bitterbrush. Four exclosures exclosures have been hogany, and bitterbrush. located coniferous types containing important important located in coniferous forage. Grassland Grassland types have had amounts of browse browse forage. three, and and broad-leaf desert shrub, shrub, and three, broad-lea! tree tree (aspen), desert 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-101-R. contribution from i ! • , I +--SLOPE-'+ 4---SU:IPE------+ The first were built 1949 when when 11 11 first exclosures exclosures were built in 1949 were established under direction direction of district district biolobiolowere established gists. Scattered Scattered statewide statewide in the mountainous part, gists. part, mostly Federal lands, and almost almost entirely entirely on mostly on Federal winter ranges, ranges, these these original original exclosures winter exclosures were built built Department. Since 1949, 1949, 32 32 more more exclosolely by the Department. sures have been removed, leaving a total total of of 40 now now sures designed purpose. fulfilling their their designed purpose. : Sub-Area Pial ---- ~, I l I -- ACRE - STUDY '. , ~1! I I l AREA.!.-- I 1 _ I -- - - : ~ :; IN , , , ., I . , p-Transec;h_ I I , I " I : I I I I ';=-_5_0.--=-:ti •• - - --2~'---- --~- - - -- -,: NOTE: ________ Study Area boundaries should be a rnlnlmum 330' ,o· of 50' from fences. _ Figure 1. 1. Layout of of one-acre one-acre study area area and sub-area sub-area Figure plots 2-1/ 2 acre acre exclosure exclosure treatment. treatment. Excloplots upon a 2-1/2 Exclosure treatment treatment boundaries are real real if treatment sure boundaries are treatment is exclosure part on an outside, outside, fenced exclosure part or imaginary imaginary if on area. A minimum of 2 transects are loopen range area. transects are randomly in each one of the sub-area sub-area plots. cated randomly plots. Either 200 200 foot study area area side can be chosen as the Either base establishment of the transect transect localocabase side for the establishment 50 foot wide strip. strip. Outside 1 acre acre study tions on each 50 areas should be so oriented oriented that transects are are areas that the transects perpendicular fences regardless regardless perpendicular to the fences of slope direction. direction. �COLORADO BIG GAHE GA1~ EXCLOSURES EXCLOSURES -- 'MARCH MARCH 1, 1, 1965 COLORADO VEG. LOCATION 1/ 1/ COOPERATING DEGREE OF DATE SIZE (ACRES) LOCATION COOPERA'rING DEGRE!!: NAME ESTABLISHED TYPE GAME LIVEST, LIVEST. COUNTY UNIT AGENCY, IF ANY STUDY 2/ NAME ESTABLISHED TYPE COUNTY UNIT AGENCY, STIJ1)Y Antelope Pass Game-Cattle Game-Cattle 8/55 1-Agde 2.5 Grand BLM Dist., 2 PTjPPjPCC Antelope 8/55 1-Agde 2,5 22.5 ,5 Grand 18 BLM Dist PT:PP;PCC Bar D Deer-Cattle 4-Artr Rio Blanco BLM Dist. 1 PT;PPjPCC le 11/58 4-Artr 2.5 22.5 .5 Rio Blanco 27 BLM PT:PP;PCC D Deer-Catt Basalt Deer .25 Eagle PTjPPjPCI Basalt 9/49 5-QUE .25 Eagie 44 PT;PP:PCI Beaver Creek Creek Deer Deer Fall, 4-Artr .25 PTjPPjOE Beaver Fal l 51 4-Artr .25 Grand 28 PT·PP·OE Blue Mesa Mesa Deer-Livestock .25 .25 Montrose BLM Dist. 4 OEjPP Blue Deer-Livestock Fall, 49 44-Artr -Artr .25 .25 Montrose 61 BLM OE;PP Ridge Game-Cat Game-Cattle 4-Artr Grand Arapaho PTjPPjPCI tle 6/62 4-Artr 5.0 2.5 Grand 28 Arapaho N.F. PT;PP;PCI Blue Ridge Broken Deer-Cattle 8/55 4-Artr 2.5 Grand 18 BLM Dis Dist. 2 PTjPPjPCC Brok.en Road Road Deer-Cattle 4-Artr 22.5 .5 Grand 18 BLM PT;PP:PCC Brushy Ridge Deer-Livestock .5 62 BLM Dist. 3 Brushy Ridge Deer-Livestock Fall, 51 44-Artr -tu:tr ,5 9.5 Mesa BLM OE Calloway Deer-Livestock Spr.,1 58 16-Grsp Moffatt PTjPPjPCC •C alloway Deer-Livestock Spr, 16-Grsp 2.5 Moffatt 2 PT;PP:PCC' Cathedral Creek Creek Su., .25 Blanco PPjOE Csthedral Su. 9-PJ .25 Rio Blanco 221l PP·OE 1 50 Cathedral Springs Springs Deer Deer-Cattle 18-POL 1.0 Blanco Dist.. 1 PTjPP Cathedral -Cattle 10/58 18-POL L.O 11.0 . 0 Rio Blanco 21 BLM Dist PT;PP Cold Springs Springs Mtn 4-Artr 2.5 Moffatt PTjPP Cold Mtn ..Game-Livestock . Game-Livestock 9/57 4-Artr 2,5 Moffatt 2 PT;PP Cow Gulch Gulch Deer-Cattle Deer-Cattle 4-Artr 2.5 18 ELM Dist. 2 PTjPP Cow 8/55 4-Artr 2.5 2,5 Grand 18 l\LM PT;PP Badger Deer-Cattle Deer-Cattle 4-Artr Grand BLM Dist. Dist. 2 PTjPPjPCC Dead Badger 8/55 4·Artr 2.5 2.5 Grand 18 BLM PT;PP;PCC Dillon Gulch Gulch Deer-Livestock Deer-Livestock D-9/53;L-Su D-9/53jL-Su.,49 4-Artr .25 .25 Gunnison 54 PPjOE Dillon . 1 49 4-Artr .25 . 25 Gunnison PP;OE Douglas Creek Creek Deer-Sheep Su., 53 4-Artr .5 Blanco BLM Dist. PPjOE Douglas Deer-Sheep Su,, 4-Artr .5 10.0 Rio Blanco 21 BLM Dis~. l1 PP;OE Basin Deer-Livestock Deer-Livestock 4-Artr 2.5 Miguel BLM Dist. 1 4, PTjPPjPCC Dry Basin 6/59 4-Artr 2.5 San Miguel 70 BLM P'I';PP;PCC Dry Mesa Mesa Deer-Livestock Deer-Livestock 4-Artr .5 Montrose BLM PPjOE Drv Fall, 51 4-Artr .5 9.5 Montrose 62 BLM Dist. 3 PP;OE Hermosa Plata PPjOE Hermosa NO.2 No. 2 9/50 6-PP 1.0 La Plata 74 San Juan N.F. N.F. PP·;OE Hernage Gulch Gulch ~Su., 5-Cemo .25 Eagle PP;PTjPCI 5-Cemo .25 Eagle 44 PP;PT;PCI Hernage Su. , 49 Horn Gulch Gulch Deer Deer 4-Artr.2 Saguache Gunnison N,F. N.F. PPjOE 9/49 4-Artr .2 Saguache 55 Gunnison PP;OE Horn House Creek 8/50 5-QUE .25 Montezuma PP;OE House Creek 8/50 5-0UE ,25 Montezuma 75 San Juan N.F. N.F, -PP;OE Irish Canyon Canyon Deer-Livestock Deer-Livestock 4-Artr Moffatt BLM Dist. PTjPPjPCC Irish 11/57 4-Artr 22.5 .5 22.5 .5 Moffatt 2 BLM Dist. 6 P'I';PP:PCC Kannah Creek Creek Deer 4-Artr Mesa N.F. PP;OE Kannah Deer Fall, 49 4-Artr ..25 25 Mesa 41 Grand Mesa-Uncomp. Mesa-Uncomp. N. F. PP :OE Kelly Deer-Cattle 11/49 5-Putr 1.3 Larimer 19 Roosevelt PT;PPjPCI Ke lly Flats Fla t s Deer-Cattle 11/49 5-Putr 1.3 Larimer 19 Roosevelt N.F. N.F. PT;PP;PCI Laramie River River Deer-Livestock Deer-Livestock 8/60 4-Artr Larimer BLM Dist. PTjPP 8/60 4-Artr 2.5 22.5 .5 Larimer 7 BLM Dist. 2 PT;PP Laramie Creek Su., 1-Deca Garfield White River N.F. PPjOE Lost Solar Creek Su,. 52 1-Deca 1.0 Garfield .224 4 White Rive.r PP;OE McPhee Gu Gulch Game-Cattle G-6/60jC-Su.,41 4-Artr .75.5 Eagle White R. N.F.&BLM Dist. 2 PTjPP McPhee l ch Game-Cattle G6/60:C-Su . •41 4-Artr .75 .5 Eagle 37 White R, l>l.F.&BLM PT;PP Middle Cottonwood Creek Creek Game Game Su., 49 5-Cemo Chaffee 48 San Isabel Isabel N.F. PTjPPjPCIjOE Middle Cottonwood Su .• 49 5-Cemo ..22 22 Chaffee 48 San N.F. PT;PP;PCI;OE Minnesota Creek Creek Deer-Livestock Deer-Livestock 5-Cemo Delta BLM Dist. PPjOE Minnesota 8/54 5,-Cemo 1.0 5.3 Delta 53 BLM Dist. 3 PP;OE Pedee Creek Creek 12/50 2.1 Clear Creek Creek Arapaho N.F. PPjOE Pedee 12/50 6-PP 2.1 Clear 39 Arapaho N.F. PP;OE Piedra 10/50 6-PP .5 Archuleta PPjOE Piedra 10/50 6~PP .5 Archuleta 71 San Juan Juan N.F. N.F. PP;OE Saguache Park Park Su., 56 1-Mumo 1.0 Saguache 68 Rio Grande Grande N.F. PTjPP;PCC Saguache 1-Mumo Saguache PTjPPjPCC Saguache Park Park Catt Cattle l-Mufi Saguache Grande N.F. PTjPPjPCC le 6/58 1-Mufi 2.0 Saguache 68 Rio Grande P~;PP;PCC Saguache Sinbad Valley Valley Deer-Cattle 4-Artr Mesa 60 BLM PPjOE Deer-Cattle 9/54 4-Artr 1.0 3.1 Mesa 60 BLM Dist. 44 PP;OE Sinbad Skinner Ridge 10/58 4-Artr 2.5 2.5 PT;PP Ski.nner Rid e Deer-Cattle Deer-Cattle to/58 4-Artr 2. 5 2. 5 Rio Blanco Blanco 31 PT· PP Catamount Creek Creek Elk 10-A Teller Pike PTjPP South Catamount Elk 88/55 55 10-A 1.4 Teller 59 Pike N.F. N.11. P'l'•PP Sulphur Di~ide Divide Deer-Cattle 4-Artr .25 .25 Grand Salphur Deer-Cattle Fall, 51 4-Artr .25 .25 Grand 18 OE Thomas Creek Creek 5-QUE .25 Pitkin if3 PTjPCI Thomas 8/49 5-QIIB . 25 Pitkin 43 PTjPCI Woods Gulch Deer Deer-Livestock 5/54 l-Agde 1.3 8.2 Gunnison 55 BLM PPjOE Woods Gulch -Livestock 5/54 1-Agde 1.3 8.2. Gunnison 55 BLM Dist. Dist. 33 P.P;OE 1/ See Special Special Report Report "A Directory ~olorado Big Big Game Exclosures Exclosures Concerning Concerning Program Program History, Techniques, Locations, Locations, and !/ Direc to ry of Colorado History, Study Techniques, Other General General Information", Information", January January 1, 1,1961, legal descriptions descriptions 0£ of locations, seasons seasons of use by anima animal classes, etc. Other 1961, for legal 2/ PT=Permanent PT=Permanent Range Transects; PP=Permanent OE=Ocular (Or General) General) Estimations; PCC=Pellet Group Counts, J:./ Range Transects; PP=Permanent Photo Photo ·Points; Points; OE=Ocular Estimations; PCC=Pellet Group Counts, ~ontinuous or more year studies; studies; PCI~Pellet PCI=Pellet Group Group Counts Counts, fewer fewer than usually for 1. continuous 55 or more year than 55 years, years, usually for 1. �Establishment Establishment 2. Vse wire for both livestock livestock and Use of 39" wide woven wire parts. game parts. selecting a site, site, one In selecting one should keep in mind the following requirements: requirements: (1) (1) consistent consistent use by game, (2) uniformity of vegetative cover and and composition, (2) unifo_rmity of vegetative composition, and (3) (3) total total agreement agreement on on placement placement by all parties and parties concerned. concerned. in establishment establishment include avoidWords of caution ln ance of sites sites near near animal animal watering, restwatering, salting, salting, and restareas and routes near active active gullies gullies ing areas routes of travel, travel, near and/ intermittent streams, streams, in inaccessible inaccessible areas areas and/ or intermittent away from from frequently frequently used trails trails and roads, roads, and on away excessively steep slopes, slopes, hummocky excessively steep hummocky and rough outcrops, swamps, swamps, and deep-snow deep-snow areas. areas. ground, outcrops, Photographs taken at p. permanently located points Photographs e rmanently located near, on, and and around exclosure. exclosure fenced and/or near, and/ or study tracts investigating influences influences of tracts have been means of investigating grazing and browsing browsing on vegetation. vegetation. Types of perpergrazing transects that that have been used manent range transects used include the Parker Parker 3-step 3-Step (Parker (Parker 1951, 1951, 1953) 1953) and line intercept (Canfield 1941, 1941, 1950) 1950) procedures. procedures. Adaptation tercept of latter pr procedures brush ranges ranges has been necesof latter ocedures to brush necessary modifications in techniques. sary through modifications techniques. Lack of here prohibits prohibits repetition repetition of explanations space here explanations which have been presented 1961). Stockpresented elsewhere elsewhere (Baker, 1961). ing 1·ate rate studies studies have been made at many of the exclosures, almost almost entirely entirely through use use of pellet closures, pellet group techniques. counting technjques. Recommended fenoe fence construction construction materials materials and design: 1. Game-proof Game-proof Ience fence :11 minimum average average of 7-1/2 7-1/2 1. feet high, greater greater on steep steep slopes. slopes. 3. Vse 10- to 1212-foot pressure treated treated posts, posts. Use of of 10foot pressure 4. Good Good tamping tamping of posts posts in 30-ineh 30-inch holes in line line 4. 36-inch corners of fences and 32- to 36inch deep holes at corners game-proof parts. parts. game-proof 5. A spacing spacing interval interval of 14 14 feet in line and 10 10 feet at 5, corners. corners. 6. Right angle corners, corners, square square shape. shape. 6. REFERENCES CITED CITED REFERENCES Baker, Bertram Bertram D. D. 1961. 1961. A A di.rectory directory of Colorado Baker, big game exclosures exclosures concerning concerning program program history, history, study techniques, techniques, locations, locations, and other other general general information. and Fi.sh Fish Dept. Spec. information, Colo. Game a,nd Rept., January. 51 Rept., January. 51 pp. Canfield, R. R. H. H. 1941. 1941. Application of the line interinterJour. ception method in sampling sampling range vegetaion. Jour. For., 39(4):388-394. For., ____ 1950. Sampling ranges by the line intercepintercep____ •. 1950. Sampling ranges tion method. Res. Rept. No.4, Southwestern Forest Forest No. 4, Southwestern Forest Service, Service, V.S.D.A., and Range Exp. Sta., Forest U.S.D.A., Tucson, Arizona. Arizona. P1·ocessed, Processed, 22 ill. 22 pp., ill. Parker, K. K. W. W. 1951. 1951. A method for measuring measuring trend trend Parker, in range range condition on on national national forest forest ranges. ranges. Forest Service, Service, U.S.D.A., V.S.D.A., mimeo., 26 ppForest mimeo., 26 p_p.. ____ 1953. Instructions Instructions for measurement measurement and .• 1953. ---observation of vigor, vigor, composition, browse. observation composition, and browse. Forest Service, Service, U.S.D.A., V.S.D.A., mimeo.,9 Forest mimeo., 9 pp. Baker B. D. Baker Assistant Researcher Assistant Wildlife Researcher 1965 July, 1965 �Outdoor oorF Facts :if I PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. COLORADO -4tJ .. " Number 19 Number19 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet CONTROLLING RUBBER RABBITBRUSH RABBITBRUSH WITH 2,4-D 2,4-D l/ 1/ CONTROLLING RUBBER WITH In the management management of our native ranges ranges it often In desirable to convert convert low low value brushland more is desirable brushland to a more desirable type. One One such low low value brushland brushland is desirable dominated by rabbitbrush rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus (Chrysothamnus spp. Nutt.), shrub which usually usually indicates indicates range deterioration. a shrub deterioration. northwestern Colorado, the invasion of of rubber rubber In northwestern rabbitbrush nauseosus (Pallas) rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus {Pallas) Britt.) is a problem problem on on valley bottoms bottoms where it has Britt.) replaced more more desirable desirable vegetation. vegetation. This species species is replaced considered unpalatable unpalatable for livestock livestock and provides considered and provides little benefit to wildlife when when it grows in pure stands, stands. little benefit relative rate rate of twig elongation. StatisStatislength, and relative tical analysis analysis invol involving multiple regression regression tical ving multiple and correlation was used used to evaluate evaluate the results. results. correlation Only two factors, factors, carbohydrate carbohydrate content of the roots Only roots relative rate rate of carbohydrate carbohydrate translocation, translocation, had and relative susceptibility of rabbitrabbita significant significant influence on the susceptibility brush to 2,42,4-D. Carbohydrate reserves reserves in the roots roots brush D. Carbohydrate definite seasonal seasonal pattern exhibited a definite pattern as shown in Figure 1. Figure 15 100 RABBITBRUSH RA891T9RI.JS'1 rabbitbrush is extremely extremely difficult difficult to kill Rubber rabbitbrush because resprouts from roots because it resprouts roots even though the tops are killed. killed. Translocated Translocated herbicides, herbicides, such as 2,4-D, are appear to offer best best control. control. Hyder, Sneva, and Freed Freed appear (1962) stated susceptibility of green green rabbitrabbit(1962) stated that that the susceptibility brush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflours (Hook.) (HOOk.)N utt.) to brush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflours Nutt.) 2,4-D ester depended upon upon a certain certain combina2,4D butyl ester phenological, and physiological physiological tion of environmental, environmental phenological, conditions. Because Because the influence of these these conditions conditions. is not understood, understood, effective effective control control of rabbitbrush rabbitbrush is seldom achieved. In 1962, 1962, a study was conducted in northwestern northwestern determine certain environColorado to dete rmine the effect of cert.i.in environmental, phenological, physiological factors factors on the mental, phenological, and physiological susceptibility of rubber rubber rabbitbrush rabbitbrush to 2,4-D. The susceptibility plants were sprayed sprayed on 10 10 dates, dates, approximately approximately two plants apart, beginning in May May and ending in Septemweeks apart, ber, The formulation formulation consisted consisted of of 2,4-D butyl ester ester ber. applied at an acid rate rate of 31 lb./acre in a 1:1 1:1 mixture 31 lb./acre m.i.xtu.re of water water and diesel diesel oil with a hand sprayer. sprayer. Survival Survival year later. later. counts were made one year collection of data The collection data included: measurements measurements of air temperature, relative relative humidity, soil soil temperature, temperature, air temperature, moisture, carbohydrate carbohydrate content of lateral lateral roots, soil moisture, roots, relative rate rate of of carbohydrate carbohydrate translocation, translocation, twig relative 1Contribution from from Federal.Aid Federal Aid Project Project W-101 W-101-R. lcontribution - R. .p ......>- ~0 z 8 1:!~ ~'" ~ ~ :,; X 0 g => 5"i:l MORTALITY MORTAL ITY .. ~ , 5 CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT :,: ::, ., "' "... ;;; ,. ::<" Figure 1.--A comparison comparison of carbohydrate Figure 1.--A carbohydrate content and rabbitbrush mortality. rabbitbrush mortality. how carbohydrate carbohydrate reserves reserves deThe graph shows how leveled off off until midmid-July, clined in May, leveled July, and then increased. Highest rabbitbrush rabbitbrush kills increased. kills were were obtained just increase occurred. occurred. At this time the rate rate just as this this increase this time carbohydrate translocation from the leaves leaves to the of carbohydrate translocation from roots was increased. increased. Evidently, Evidently, enough 2,4-D was roots carried to the roots roots along with the carbohydrates carbohydrates to carried achieve a good good kill. kill. Mter this critical period, rabbitrabbitAfter this critical period, brush mortality mortality declined declined because because root reserves reserves had brush built up enough enough to offset offset the effect effect of 2,4-D. This built correct timing timing is so important important helps to explain why why correct killing resprouting resprouting species species with herbicides. herbicides. in killing �None of the other other factors, factors, except except soil soil moisture, moisture, None individual effect upon rabbitbrush rabbitbrush mortality. mortality. had much indi victual effect effect of all 10 factors factors accounted accounted for for The combined effect only 33 33 percent percent of the variation variation in the susceptibility susceptibility rabbitbrush to 2,4.-D, 2,4-D, suggesting suggesting that that other other factors factors of rabbitbrush are are present. present. summarizing the the results results of this study, the most most In summarizing effective effective control control of rabbitbrush rabbitbrush by 2,4-D is achieved achieved only when when (1) (1) food reserves reserves are are low, (2) (2) the rate rate of carbohydrate translocation translocation to the roots roots is speeded speeded carbohydrate up, and (3) (3) soil soil moisture moisture becomes becomes limiting, limiting. This favorable combination combination did not occur occur until until the latter latter favorable part part of July. July. Hyder, D. D. N., F. S. Sneva, and V. V. FI. H. Freed. Freed. 1962. 1962. Susceptibility of big sagebrush sagebrush and green green rabbitrabbitSusceptibility brush to 2,4-D as related related to certain certain environmental, environmental, brush phenological, phenological, ancl and physiological physiOlogical conditions. conditions. Weeds. 10:288295. 10:288-295. Donald Donald G. G. Smith Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant July, 1965 1965 �Outdoor Facts I'· ~ u COLORADO PARKS DEP. DEPT. L M , fFISH and nd P.A co R 00 GGAME, PUBLISHED tEO BY THEE J Game Information Information Leaflet Number Game Leaflet umber 20 COLORADO BIG BIG GAME GAME SPECIES SPECIES AS POSSIBLE COLORADO AS POSSIBLE VECTORS OF OF SOME SOME LIVESTOCK LIVESTOCK DISEASES 1/ VECTORS DISEASES 1/ Brucellosis, disease primarily primarily of of Brucellosis, a contagious disease cattle, swine and and goats, which which also affects sheep, cattle, horses, and man, costs the livestock livestock people of of the horses, and United States approximately 100 100 million dollars dollars per United year. percent of by.the year. Ninety Ninety percent of this loss is sustained sustained by .the industry through reduced milk production and and cattle industry of calves (Fay, 1961) 1961).. The disease disease in man is the loss of known as undulant fever, serious, self-limiting self-limiting illknown fever, a serious, ness, contracted contracted from drinking milk or dairy ness, dairy products handling meat from infected animals. animals. Brucellosis Brucellosis or handling disease, contagious abortion) is caused by (Bang's disease, bacteria of the Brucella Brucella bacteria of Brucella group, namely Brucella abortus in cattle, cattle, B. B. suis suis in swine, and and B. B. melitensis melitensis in goats, and and is characterized characterized primarily primarily by abortion (Siegmund, ~ al.., al., 1961). 1961). in the female (Siegmund,~ Another disease disease of of economic importance importance to a western dependent on a substanwestern state state like Colorado, dependent substantial livestock industry, is leptospirosis. leptospirosis. This is a tial livestock febrile of cattle, cattle, sheep, swine, dogs, goats febrile disease disease of and horses, horses, and is transmissible transmissible to man. It is caused and by Leptospirapomona, L. canicola, and icteroand L. icterohaemorrhagiae primarily. It is characterized characterized by haemo· r rhagiae primarily. initial high high fevers, fevers, and localization in the kidinitial and then localization resulting in chronic ill-health ill-health and and stunting in neys, resulting calves, and and abortion and milk reduction in adult calves, cattle. Both diseases, diseases, brucellosis brucellosis and and leptospirosis, leptospirosis, are Both commonly initially oral commonly initially infected in cattle through the oral of urine-conurine-conand pharyngeal mucosa by the intake of taminated food or water. Urinary of leptotaminated food Urinary shedding of spirae and and brucellae brucellae is profuse, profuse, and and in brucellosis brucellosis spirae the organisms organisms are shed in the milk, sometimes sometimes for Leptospirosis is essentially essentially a water-borne water-borne disdislife. Leptospirosis ease, brucellosis, although although the latter latter is spread spread ease, as is brucellosis, through contact of mucous membranes membranes,, abrasions abrasions and even through the intact skin (Siegmund, al., and (Siegmund, et al., 1961). 1961). 11Contribution Aid Project Project WW-38-R. contribution from Federal Federal Aid 38-R. Leptospirosis can be treated, certain extent, Leptospirosis treated, to a certain but no no effective treatment brucell.osis has ever treatment for brucellosis bas ever found; therefore, efforts have have been directed directed at been found; therefore, efforts and prevention. prevention. This is based upon upon periodic periodic control and testing of of herds herds and and removal removal for slaughter slaughter of of infected testing reservoirs have been eliminated eliminated animals until these these reservoirs (Atkinson, al., 1942). 1942). Many areas of the United (Atkinson, et al., Many areas States have become brucellosis free, and individual states brucellosis free, herds have become certified herds certified to this effect. stated by Fay (1961), (1961), complete eradication eradication of As stated Bang's disease largely on locating and disease is dependent dependent largely eliminating all disseminators disseminators of of the disease. disease. This eliminating immediately raises the question as to whether wild immediately raises animals are are infected with brucellosis brucellosis and leptospirosis, and are are capable of of spreading spirosis, spreading it to livestock. livestock. The fact that sporadic sporadic outbreaks occur herds in The occur in herds which brucellosis brucellosis has been greatly greatly rreduced which educed has led many suspect that other animal reservoirs reservoirs are are many to suspect responsible. Big game animals, animals, principally principally deer and responsible. deer and free-ranging ruminants, ruminants, are elk, being free-ranging are prime prime sussuspects. The Yearbook of Agriculture Agriculture states states that there there pects. The serological evidence that deer brucellosis is serological deer have brucellosis (Manthei,et~ al., 1956). 1956). Bill McKean, (Manthei, McKean, now now with the Colorado Game, Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks Department, Department, found found white-tailed deer deer in North Dakota were suscepsuscepthat white-tailed (1949). Severinghaus and Cheatum tible to brucellosis brucellosis (1949). (1956) stated (1956) stated that buffalo, elk and moose are are known known to carry carry the brucellosis brucellosis organisms. organisms. Olaus Murie (1957) reported reported several several incidences (1957) incidences of infectious Jackson Hole, Hole, the northern northern abortion in elk from Jackson Yellowstone herd, and other Wyoming The Yellowstone Wyoming locations. locations. The Yearbook of of Agriculture Agriculture also states Yearbook states tthat hat Leptospira Leptospira are found found most commonly in rodents, rodents, from which are which spread to man or domestic infection can spread domestic animals (Van and Manthei, 1956), 1956). While these statements (Van Ness and While these statements may be true, true, without without further further clarification clarification they tend to incriminate deer and elk. incriminate our deer �,.. I '-· 16 0 Tt t. t "' ,, .,-;;:_l! l"'' ' ~'! ~ so FIGURE 1. FIGURE MAJOR COLORADO COLORADO AREAS SAMPLED SAMPLED FOR FOR DETERMINATION DETERMINATION OF BRUCELLOSIS BRUCELLOSIS AND LEPTOSPIROSIS LEPTOSPIROSIS 1N IN BIG BIG oom GAME ANIMALS, 1961-64, 1961-64. MAJOR Wu.Y C_2U.!'!!!..--COUHTY �It was because because of of such implications, implications, then, that (1961) conducted a nation-wide nation-wide survey Fay (1961) suney to appraise appraise general significance significance of brucellosis deer, He the general brucellosis in deer. He found that deer deer have been tested tested for brucellosis brucellosis in found least 32 states, states, and of 1,046 1,046 mule deer deer and 2,989 2,989 at least undesignated deer deer (in nine states), reacundesignated states), none were were reactors. However, he found 12,706 white-tailed tors. found that of 12,706 white-tailed deer tes tested 24 states, states, 0.16 percent percent were considered deer ted in 24 were considered reactors or, or, in general sense, infected. infected. These These as reactors general sense, occurred primarily southeastern states states where where the occurred primarily in southeastern brucellosis eracliration eradication program He conbrucellosis program has lagged. He significant that brucellosis in deer deer is cluded that it is significant that brucellosis nonexistent or or rare rare in most most states. states. He states, states, ''The "The noneXistent apparent absence absence of brucellosis brucellosis in the deer deer of the apparent southwestern and Rocky MoW1tain Mountain states states might be southwestern interpreted to mean mean that mule deer deer are are more more resistresistinterpreted disease. A better explanation, ant to infection infection with the disease. better explanation, believe, lies lies in the greater greater dispersal dispersal of cattle cattle on the I believe, range with little little or no opportunity opportunity for transtransopen range mission among cattle, cattle, or cattle and deer deer ... ... mission or between cattle "Furthermore, deer are are known known to be sussus"Furthermore, while deer ceptible to brucellosis, brucellosis, very very few few have been found ceptible infected with the disease." disease," He He concludes concludes that that" ' ... .•. infected brucellosis is a comparatively comparatively rare rare disease disease in deer deer brucellosis States, and that it is an unimportant unimportant of the United States, disease from the standpoint standpoint of the health of the deer deer disease deer as reservoir of infection infection to livestock." livestock." or deer as a 1·eservoir 1955 an outbreak outbreak of leptospirosis Around 1955 leptospirosis in cattle cattle Plateau area area led to certain certain allealleon the Uncompahgre Plateau cattlemen that deer deer were responsible. gations by cattlemen were responsible. 1957, an outbreak outbreak of the same same disease disease north north Again, in 1957, Castle was blamed deer by the stockman of New New Castle bfo.med on deer stockman concerned. concerned. As a result result of these these accusations, accusations, the Department Department undertook the job of either either substantiating substantiating or refuting refuting undertook such claims claims by testing testing blood samples samples from various various 1961 to big game species. species. During the period period from 1961 1964 blood speci,mens specimens were collected collected at big game 1964 live-trapped animals animals by check stations stations and from from live-trapped biologists, These These blood samples samples were subjected subjected to biologists. seroagglutination test the seroagglutination test for brucellosis brucellosis and the complement-fixation test test for leptospirosis leptospirosis by the complement-fixation Cooperative Brucellosis Brucellosis in Denver and by the ColoCooperative rado State University University College of Veterinary Veterinary Medicine Fort Collins. Collins. Figure Figure 1 indicates indicates the general general areas areas at Fort state whicb which have been represented represented in the tests. of the state tests. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture, (1946) (1946) best sums up our best sums Department findings: "The results results indicate ''The indicate to us that that wildlife in Colonot appe.ar appear to be a source source of brucellosis. brucellosis. rado does l1ot During years, over over a thousand thousand head of During the past past five years, wildlife have been sampled routinely and with negative sampled routinely results. results. "Weare "We are pleased pleased to have a program program of this this type and through the efforts efforts and cooperation cooperation of the it is only through Colorado Game and Fish Fish Department Department that that such inforinforColorado mation is compiled." compiled.' 1 References Cited References Atkinson, V. V. T., W. W. Dickson, W. W. H. H. Harbaugh,J. Harbaugh,J. Law, W. H. Lowe, J. R. Mohler, Mohler, A. A. J. Murray, L. W. H. J. Murray, Pearson, B. H. H. Ransom, Ransom, and M. M. R. Trumbower. Trumbower. Pearson, 1942. Special Special report report diseases 1942. on diseases of cattle. cattle. 507 pp., illus. illus. U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C. 507 1961. The current current status status of brucellosis Fay, L. D. 1961. brucellosis in white-tailed deer in the United States. States, tailed and mule deer whiteMich. Dept. Cons., Cons" Report Report No, No. 2326, 2326, Mimeo. 12 12pp. pp. Manthei, C. A., A. K. Kuttler, Kuttler, and E. R. Goode, Goode, Jr. Jr. 1956. Brucellosis, Agriculture, 1956. Brucellosis, in Yearbook of Agriculture Animal Diseases. Diseases. pp. 202-213, 202-213. 1949. A search search for for Bang's McKean, William.T. William T. 1949. Bang's disease disease in North Dakota deer. deer. N. Dak. Dak, Outdoors, Outdoors, 11(8):10. Murie, Olaus J. 1957. 1957. The elk of North America. Murie, North America. Harrisburg Pa., Stackpole Co., Harrisburg Pa., and Wildl. Wilctl. Mgmt. Inst., Washington, D. C. 376 376 pp., illus. Inst., illus. Severinghaus, C. W., and E. L. Cheatum. Cheatum. 1956. 1956. Life Severinghaus, times of the whitetailed whitetailed deer, deer, in Deer Deer of North and times America, ed. Walter Walter P. Taylori Taylor; Stackpole Stackpole Co., America, Harrisburg, Pa., Pa., and Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. Inst., Inst., WashingHarrisburg, 57-186. 186. ton D. C. pp. 57W. Armistead, Armistead, Siegmund, O. 0. H., J. W. McLean, McLean, W. W. W. G. B. Schnelle. Schnelle. W. A. Hagan, L. M. Hutchings, and G. 19611 The Merck Merck veterinary veterinary manual. Merck Merck and 19611 1,630 pp. J. 1,630 Co., Rahway, Rahway, N. J. C., and E. S. Cox. 1964. 1964. Letter, Tobin, W. W. c., Letter, Dec. 14. Agric. Colo. Dept. Agric. These specimens specimens have totalled totalled 876 876 to date, reprerepreThese senting 631 631 mule deer, deer, 203 203 elk, 40 antelope, and two senting 40 antelope, bears. Brucellosis tests have all been been negative, negative, as bears. Brucellosis tests those samples samples run for leptospirosis. leptospirosis. have those Ness, G. G. B., and C. A. Manthei. 1956. 1956. LeptoVan Ness, spirosis, Agriculture, Animal spirosis, in Yearbook Yearbook of Agriculture, Diseases. pp. 226-228. Diseases. letter from from Drs. Drs. Wm. C. Tobin, State VeteriVeteriA letter narian of of the Colorado Colorado Veterinary Veterinary Section, and E. S. narian Federal Veterinarian Colorado, of Cox, Federal Veterinarian in Charge Charge of Colorado, Eradication Division of the U. Disease Eradication U. S. the Animal Disease Richard Richard N. Denney Researcher Wildlife Researcher July, 1965 1965 July, �Outdoor Facts 0 t PUBLISHED UBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO GA GAME, PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO M E, FISH and PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 21 Number21 PROCEDURES IN THE THE APPRAISAL APPRAISAL OF BIG BIG GAME GAME USE USE PROCEDURES IN OF OF STACKED STACKED ALFALFA ALFALFA OR NATIVE HAY 11// OF OR ATIVEJHAY Haystack use by big game animals animals occurs occurs mostly Haystack use by during the winter during winter months. Claims for hay used by deer or elk are are usually usually simple simple to adjust, especially deer adjust, especially stack is large large and the animals animals were if the stack were unable to climb on on top ot of the stacks. stacks. They They feed and bed down down sides of of the stack, stack, causing causing what around the ends and sides called an ""undercut." is commonly called undercut." Stacked hay has been measured measured and computed by an established form by Milt established formula formula put out in book form Gage (1936). (1936). The following formula formula is the one pres-Gage one pres Fish and ently being used by the Colorado Game, Fish Parks Department Department in determining determining the volume in cubic Parks feet of the stack: stack: = Volume (cu. (cu. ft.} ft.) == LL Volume (0+W)2 (o+w) 2 ((4) 4) "L" denotes denotes the length of of the stack stack in feet feet and "L" inches, "W" "over" or inches • 'W'' is tthe he width, and '"0" '0" is the "over" distance in feet and inches inches from the ground on on one distance stack to the ground on on the opposite opposite side. side. side over the stack Exact measurement measurement of the undercut undercut is important important Exact determining the amount of hay useq usee! by the deer deer or in determining or steel tape, if possible, measure the elk. Using a steel possible, measure length of the stack stack on on each side; the width width on on each end and and the distance distance from the ground to the top of the undercut; also, the distance distance from the outer outer edge or undercut; also, stack, in a horizontal horizontal plane, in as far far as face of the stack, the animals animals have eaten. For example, example, if a stack stack is is 30 30 feet long and 15 15 feet feet For wide, and the undercut undercut averages averages three three feet feet into the stack on both the sides sides and ends, and the top of the stack undercut is six feet feet from from the ground, this this would would mean undercut 30x3x6 on one side. side. This would would have to an undercut undercut 30x3x6 multiplied by two to arrive arrive at the amount of hay be multiplied used on both sides sides of the .sstack. used tack. Since the full length sides has you will have to subtract subtract of the sides bas been used, used, you six .feet feet when measU1•ing measuring the undercut undercut on the ends of of six the stack, stack, or a measurement measurement of 9x3x6 9x3x6 times times 2. formula mentioned above above is an extremely extremely The formula general general type and the following proposal proposal is made so that Department can more more accurately accurately determine determine that the Department various sized sized stacks rather ~han use a the volume of various stacks rather than use general formula. formula. general are divided into three three different different types types based based Stacks a.re on shape, shape, a rule rule being developed for each shape. shape. The determined by these these rules rules averaged averaged the same same volume determined as the actual actual volumes, the error error never never being greater greater three types types of of stacks stacks designated designated than 5 percent. percent. The three square flat-topped flat-topped stacks, were the square stacks, the high roundtopped stacks, stacks, and the low low round-topped round-topped type type.. rules for determining determining the volume in cubic feet The rules are as follows: are 1. Low Low round-topped round-topped stacks: stacks: 1. (0.52 x 0) 0) - (0.44 (0.44 x W) W) x WL WL=Vol. in cu, cu. ft, ft. (0.52 =Vol .in important to remember that if the lengths of It is important remember that sides of of the stack stack are are used as a base, base, do not the sides include the widths of the undercuts on the sides sides when when include undercuts on measuring undercuts undercuts on on the ends. If this procedure measuring this procedure claimant will be paid double for is not followed, the claimant corners of the stack. stack. the four corners 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R. contribution from High round-topped round-topped stacks: stacks: 2. High = (0.52 0) - (0.46 (0.46 x W) W) x WL WL ==Vol, Vol. in cu. ft. (0. 62 xx 0) 3. Square Square flat-topped flat-topped stacks: stacks: (0.56 x 0) 0) - (0.55 (0.55 x W) W) x WL=Vol. WL=Vol. in cu. ft. (0.56 �To find the number stack it is necesnecesnumber of tons in the stack sary to divide the volume by the number of cubic feet sary per ton. The amount of hay per per cubic foot depends per time the hay has remained upon the length of time remained in the stack, moisture moisture in the hay at the time stacked, stack, time it was stacked, kind of l1ay, hay, as well as texture and foreign material. material. texture and Bibliography Bibliography Dehydrated and sun-curea sun-cured Bechdel, S. I., et al. 1940. i940. Dehydrated hay. Penn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 396. 396. Gage, 1936. Milt Gage's Gage, Milton G. G. 1936. Gage's hay book. Camp Creek Farm, Savanna, Illinois. Illinois. 210pp. Creek Farm, 210 pp. Because of of these these factors, factors, there considerBecause there often is considerdifference in the number number of cubic feet feet per per ton in able difference different figures below are are averages averages for different stacks. stacks. The figures a large large number of stacks: stacks: Hosterman, W. W. H. H. 1931. 1931. A method of determining determining the Hosterman, volume and tonnage of hay stacks. stacks. U.S.D.A. U.S.D .A. Tech. Bull. 239. Stack Length of time time in the stack 30-90 3090 days over 90 days 485 ft./ton 485 cu. ft./ton ft./ton 470 cu. ft./ton Martin, John H. H. Leonard. Leonard. 1949. 1949. PrinPrinMartin, R. and Warren Warren H. ciples Macmillan ciples of field crop production. The Macmillan New York. 1176 1176 pp. Illus~ Illus. Company, New Kind of of Hay Hay Kind Alfalfa Alfalfa Timothy and timothy mixed Wild Wild 640 cu, cu. ft./ton 640 ft./ton 600 cu. ft./ton ft./ ton 600 625 cu. ft./ton ft./ton 625 ft./ton 450 cu. tt./ton square square flat-top flat-top 1--Hay Fig. 1-Hay Stack Shapes Applicable to the above Listed Formulas. Ll~ted Formulas. Boyd Raymond JJ.. Boyd Associate Researcher Associate Wildlife Researcher and A. Dean Coleman Assistant Game Manager Manager Assistant Ga.me July, 1965 July, 1965 �Ot]_ td_OOI Facts Outdoor Facts J PUBLISHED THE PUBLISHED ev BY THE COLORADO E , FISH A RKS DEPT. COLORADO GAM GAME, FISH nnd and P PARKS DEPT. Number22 Number 22 Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet DUCK DUCK WING WING SURVEYS SURVEYS l/ 1/ Measuring Measuring productivity productivity is one of the basic basic steps steps required required for proper proper management management of any game game species species because because of the the dependence dependence of sustained sustained hunting hunting on an annual crop. crop. The U.S. U.S. Bureau Bureau of of Sport Sport Fisheries Fisheries and Wildlife and most most States States conduct waterfowl waterfowl production production surveys, surveys, but do not measure measure directly directly the productivity productivity of individual Local basis. individual species, species, except on a local basis. The absence of aa method applicable applicable to sampling sampling randomly randomly absence over large large areas areas has been a major major problem problem in gathergatherover waterfowl productivity productivity information. information. However, ing waterfowl since U.S. Bureau since the U.S. Bureau of of Sport Sport Fis11eries Fisheries and Wildlife already already obtains obtains addresses addresses of of aa sample sample of waterfowl waterfowl hunters hunters from from its its annual mail mail waterfowl waterfowl kill kill survey, survey, it seemed seemed logical logical to consider consider aa similar similar procedure procedure to gather gather duck productivity productivity data. data. proved to be the best best part part to collect collect beThe wing proved cause cause reliable reliable methods methods were developed developed by the U.S. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries Fisheries and Wildlife for determindeterminBureau ing the age and sex sex of most common species species of ducks from from wings (Carney, 1964). 1964). Wings Wings usually usually show small small differences differences in feather feather color, color, pattern, pattern, shape, shape, wear, wear, or feather feather replacement, replacement, that that are are adequate to separate separate immature (young (young of the year) year) from adults. adults. Age Age deterdeterimmature mination mination is mostly mostly a matter matter of the systematic systematic search search for one or more more of these these characters characters which which normally normally consist consist of traces traces of the juvenile juvenile plumage. plumage. Wings no signs signs of immaturity, immaturity, or sometimes sometimes having showing no definite definite adult characters, characters, are are from adult adult birds. birds. Each Each year year a sample sample of waterfowl waterfowl hunters hunters in the United States States is provided provided with a supply of of special special envelopes envelopes and asked asked to clip one wing from from each each duck they kill kill and send it, along with specified specified written written information, information, to one of four wing collection collection points. points. The wings are are placed placed in freezer freezer storage storage at the four collection lection centers centers which include Gridley, Gridley, California; California; Fort Fort Collins, Collins, Colorado; Colorado; Poynette, Poynette, Wisconsin; Wisconsin; and Laurel, Laurel, Maryland Maryland.. By late late January January or early early February February all waterfowl waterfowl hunting hunting seasons seasons have ended and wings wings have ceased ceased to 1IContribution contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-88-R. W-88-R. arrive arrive at collection collection points. points. At At this this time, time, 50 50 or more more Federal Federal and state State personnel personnel gather gather at each each of the collection collection points, points, and look at the wings individually individually to determine species, species, age, and sex sex of of the ducks from determine which they came. Such an operation operation is known known as a "wing-bee". information obtained obtained from from the "wing-bee". The information "wing-bees" is sorted sorted by species, species, State and county, "wing-bees" Patuxent Wildlife Wildlife Research Research Center, Center, and shipped to Patuxent Laurel, Laurel, Maryland Maryland for analysis. analysis. Over Over 110,000 110,000 duck wings were collected collected and classified classified at at the four colleccollection 65. tion centers centers in 19641964-65. Important Important information information derived derived from from the duck wing survey survey that has many management management implications implications includes cludes (Carney and Geis, Geis, 1960): 1960): 1. 1. Age• Age- and sex sex ratios ratios of the kill--an kill--an indication indication of yearly yearly productivity productivity and health health of a species species or or individual flock .of individual of ducks. a. Productionrate estimates Production-rate estimates make mortalitymortality·rate -rate estimates estimates computed from from band rerecoveries more more meaningful. meaningful. coveries b. Productivity Productivity data data serve serve to check check the reliareliability of aerial aerial production production surveys. surveys. bility c. Information Information on productivity productivity allows allows the study of complex factors factors that affect production, production, such such as changes changes in water water conditions conditions or or phenology of the season. season. 2. Preseason population Pre-season population estimates estimates obtained by banded-unbanded ratio directly directly computing the bandedunbanded ratio from from the sample sample of wings. 3. Indices Indices of the size size of kill of each each species species in various various parts parts of the United States. States. This serves serves to verify verify findings of the Waterfowl Waterfowl Hunters' Hunters' Mail Questionnaire, Questionnaire, which relies relies upon the hunters' ters' identification identification of species. species. 4. Determination Determination of seasonal seasonal population population indices indices by using using data data obtained obtained from from wing collections collections in conjunction conjunction with data from from other other sources. sources. �Table 1 -common ducks determined determined from wing collections collections during the Table ~- Age ratios of some common 1963-64 hunting 1963-64 hunting season SPECIES Mallard Mallard U. S. u. s. CENTRAL CENTRAL FLYWAY FLYWAY 1.62 1.03 1.30 2.69 2 . 69 3.13 2.41 1.40 1.59 1. 59 1.29 Blue-winged and Blue-winged Cinnamon Teal Cinnamon Pintail Pintail IMMATURES PER ADULT IMMATURES MISSISSIPPI ATLANTIC ATLANTIC MISSISSIPPI FLYWAY FLYWAY FLYWAY FLYWAY PACIFIC PACIFIC FLYWAY FLYWAY 1. 22 1.22 presents an example· example of the type of inforinforTable 1 _presents mation derived This table table shows mation derived from from wing surveys. surveys. This ratios of three three important important game ducks, age ratios ducks, by flyway, determined from wing collections collections during during the 1963as determined 64 hunting season. These low production production ratios ratios are are 64 season. These not characteristic characteristic rapid rate rate of increase increase in duck of a rapid populations, particularly for for mallards mallards and pintails. populations particularly pintails. Such ratios are are actually actually somewhat somewhat lower lower than than SUch age ratios indicated because we know know that that immatures immatures are are more more indicated because vulnerable to the gun than adult These low vulnerable adult birds. birds. These ratios are are a reflection reflection of poor nesting conditions ratios poor nesting conditions in the northern States and prairie northern prairie prairie States prairie provinces provinces of Canada as brought brought about by drought drought during during the past Canada past several years. years. Such conditions producseveral conditions and resulting resulting production rise to the restrictive restrictive regulation ratios ratios have given rise regulations now being being experienced experienced (1963(1963-64). tions now 64). Fish, and Parks Parks Department Department The Colorado Colorado Game, Fish, conducts a separate separate mallard survey in eastern conducts mallard wing survey eastern Colorado part of an overall Colorado as part overall study to investigate investigate the possibility of establishing establishing waterfowl waterfowl management management possibility units. Information Information obtained obtained from from this this wing survey units. su,vey will be used association with data data collected collected from other used in association from other sources determine differences differences in hunting pressure, sources to determine pressure, harvest, annual mortality other population charharvest, mortality and other population characteristics wintering flocks flocks of acteristics among the various various wintering 1.72 1. 72 TOTAL TOI'AL 1.36 1. 36 mallard. serve as a mallard. Knowledge of this this nature nature will serve basis improving our recommendations recommendations for duck basis for improVing hunting regulations eastern Colorado. Colorado. regulations in eastern LITERATURE CITED Carney, S. M. M.,1 and A. D. Geis. 1960. Mallard Mallard age and Carney, sex J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 24{4): 24(4): sex determination determination wings. J. 372-381. 372-381. Carney, S. M. 1964. 1964. Preliminary waterfowl age Carney, Preliminary key to waterfowl and sex identification by means plumage. sex identification means of wing plumage. U.S. Fish Servo Spec. Sci. Rept.--Wildl. Rept.--Wildl. Fish and Wild!. Wildl. Serv. No. pp. No. 82. 82. 47 pp. Smart, and A. D. Geis Geis.. 1964. Age ratios ratios of some some Smart, G., and. important species of ducks killed killed during during the important game species season compared 1963-64 hunting season compared to those those of prior prior years. U.S. Fish Fish and Wildl. Serv. Servo Admin. Rept. years. No. No. 59. 12 pp. pp. Richard Richard M. Hopper Assistant Researcher Assistant Wildlife Researcher July, 1965 July, 1965 �Outdoor Facts '" qj .,' PUBLISHED av BY THE THE PUBL.ISHEO . . . COLORADO GAME, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. CO ORADO GAME, Number 23 Number23 Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet CONDITION INDICES OF THE THE CACHE CACHE LA LA POUDRE POUDRE MULE TWO CONDITION TWO INDICES OF MULE DEER HERD HERD AND AND THEIR THEIR APPLICATION TO MA MANAGEMENT 1/ DEER APPLICATION TO AGEMENT 1/ there is aa need to obtain factual inIn Colorado, there formation deer when when formation on the physical physical condition of mule deer unusual mortality occurs. Such mortality mortality is often mortality occurs, associated with severe severe winters, winters, habitat habitat modification modification associated destruction, inadequate harvests, artificial barbaror destruction, harvests, artificial riers to movement and artificial feeding. There is riers and artificial physical condition of also a need to compare the physical herds diverse habitats, habitats, population densities densities, , and herds with diverse harvest levels so that the effectiveness effectiveness of of current current harvest levels practices may be adequately assessed, assessed. management practices It has been postulated postulated that the relative relative amount of body body best single indicator indicator of of physical fat is the best physical condition ruminants (Riney, (Riney, 1955). 1955). Since 1961, 1961, several several inin ruminants deer body physical condition dices of mule deer body fat or physical have been obtained from 194 194 deer deer of of all ages collectcollectapproximate weekly intervals intervals within the Cache ed at approximate drainage. Two Two of these these condition indices la Poudre drainage. which appear appear to have management management application are are presented. materials or data can be obtained presented. The materials readily readily in the field with a minimum of equipment, and since the Poudre Poudre herd presumably relasince presumably occupies a relafavorable habitat habitat our sample sample of of condition tively favorable indices may serve serve as a guide for other other mule deer deer indices herds similarity. The methodology methodology herds of broad broad ecologic similarity. and their their statisstatisfor each index is described described below and tical aspects aspects by sex and season are described described in tical season are Table 1. removed by cutting parallel removed parallel to its long axis and immediately adjacent adjacent to its attached side. side. The fat, if any, mediately illustrated in Figure Figure 1. is cut from each kidney as illustrated is weighed separately separately with fat attached; attaChed; Each kidney is peeled off off fat and and the kidney are are then reweighed peeled separately. The data are best entered in the following separately. data are best entered form: Left Right Total Total Wt. with Fat Fat Wt. Wt. without Fat Wt. Difference Difference calculate the percent percent fat index divide the total total To calculate difference value by the weight without fat and multiply difference 100. For For reference reference to relative the quotient by 100. relative condilevels, relate relate the percent tion levels, percent fat index to the values presented 1. presented in Table 1. Percent Kidney Percent Fat, Total Kidney technique (Riney, (Riney, 1955) 1955) is adapted only to This technique those situations where the carcass carcass is well"'-preserved. those situations well.:.preserved. A pocket knife and a scale scale graduated graduated in not less less than 109 intervals intervals are are the only only equipment 1 or more than 10g items 3-44 inches in length, items needed. The kidneys, about 3are located along each side of the spine in the posare terior portion terior portion of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney is 11Contribution Project WW-105-R. contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project 105- R. Figure 1. 1. Method of preparing for weighFigure preparing the kidney foT clear area area indicates tissue and the ing. The clear indicates kidney tissue tissue. The vertical vertical lines lines indicate indicate the dotted, fatty tissue. position from each end of the kidney. The position to cut fat from horizontal line indicates indicates where fat is cut on the long horizontal axis. Modified from from Riney (1955). (1955). axis. Modified �Table 1--Seasonal l--Seasonal Fluctuations Fluctuations in Total Total Kidney Kidney and Femur Femur Marrow Percentages Table Marrow Fat Percentages Sampled from from Mule Deer of All Ages, Cache Cache la poudre Drainage, 19611961-65. Sampled Mule Deer Poudre Drainage, 65. Season Season Dec.-Jan. Dec. -Jan. Feb. March-April March-April May May June-July June-July August August Sept.-Oct. Sept. -Oct. November November Dec.-Jan. Dec.-Jan. Feb. March-April March -Apri l May May June-July June-July August August Sept.-Oct. Sept. -Oct. Sex Male Male Percent Fat, Total Total Kidne y J) Percent Confidence Interval No. in 9970 Sample Average Range 95% 99% 90o/.. 8.7-17.4 8.7-17.4 10.4-15.7 9.8 - 16.3 22 13 .1 4.2-28.2 Female Female 26 35.0 35.0 8.4-91.4 8.4-91.4 28.3-41. 28.3-41.88 26.9-43.1 26.9-43.1 24.0-46.0 24 . 0-46 .0 Male Male 22 6.5 1.5-13.7 1.5-13.7 5.5-7.5 5.5-7.5 5.3-7.7 5.3-7.7 4.9-8.2 4.9 -8 .2 Female Female 34 14.0 2.9-37.7 2.9 -37 .7 11.5-16.6 11.5-1.6.6 10.9-17.2 10.9 - 17.2 9.9-18.2 9.9-18.2 Male Male 20 16.6 1.0-71.1 l,0 - 71.1 9.1-24.2 9.1-24.2 7.5-25.7 7.5-25.7 4.2-29.1 4.2-29.1 Female Female 30 9.8 3.2-28.7 3.2-28.7 7.9-11.7 7.9-11.7 7.5-11.7 7.5-11.7 6.7-12.9 6 . 7-12.9 Male Male 21 49.2 11.8-123.7 11.8 -123.7 36.4-61.9 36.4-61.9 33.8-64.6 33.8-64.6 28.2-70.2 28.2-70.2 Female Female 19 39.9 7.3-107.8 7.3-107.8 29.2-50.7 29.2-50.7 26.9-53.0 26.9-53.0 22.1-57.8 22.1-57.8 Male Male 22 Percent Fat, Femur Marrow 1/ Percent Femur Marrow 40.0-92.1 68.6-79.5 74.0 40.0-92.1 68.6-79.5 67.5-79.5 67.5-79.5 65.1-83.0 65.1-83.0 Female Female 27 89.1 66.3-97.0 66.3-97.0 86.5-91. 86.5-91.77 85.9-92.2 85.9-92.2 84.8-93.4 84.8-93.4 Male Male 23 33.2 2.5-79.3 2.5-7S.3 24.4-41. 24. 4 -41. 9 22.6-43.7 22.6-43.7 18.8-46.5 18.8-46.5 Female Female 33 69.9 10.0-93.5 10.0 -93.5 62.6-77.3 62.6-77.3 61.1-78.8 61.1-78.8 58.1-81.8 58. 1-81. 8 Male Male 15 60.2 16.8-94.1 16.8-94.l 47.4-72.9 47.4-72.9 44.7-75.6 44.7-75.6 38.6-81.6 38.6 - 81.6 Female Female 25 52.9 10.9-89.1 10.9-89.l 43.9-61.8 43.9-61.8 42.1-63.6 42 .1-63.6 38.2-67.5 38.2-67.S Male Male 18 85.3 85 . 3 51. 77-94.3 - 94 . 3 81. 0-89.77 81. 0-89. 80.1-90.6 80.1-90.6 78.2-92.5 78.2-92.5 Female Female 17 83.6 48.8-94.3 48.8-94.3 78.4-88.8 78.4-88.8 77.3-89.9 77.3-89.9 74.9-92.3 74.9-92.3 November November 1/ Riney, 1955:433 !/ Riney, 1955:433 2:..1 Ether Ether extract-gravimetric !:..I extract-gravimetric �Percent Fat, Fat, Femur Femur Marrow Marrow Percent Limitations of the Data Limitations 1951) can be used on This technique (Cheatum 1951) either fresh fresh or old carcasses carcasses (up (up to about two months either more during during midwinter) midwinter) and the only field equi_pequipor more femur is the first first long ment needed is a knife. The femur leg bone attached attached to tthe pelvis. If intact, intact, either leg tie pelvis. either femur femur removed. It should be placed freezer as may be 1·emoved. placed in a freezer possible and shipped in dry ice to the Game soon as possible Research Center Center Laboratory, 567, Fort Research Laboratory, Box 567, Fort Collins, Collins, chemical analysis. analysis. The femur marrow fat perperfor chemical femur marrow centage can also also be related related to relative relative condition centage levels by comparison comparison with the values presented presented in levels chemical analysis either Table 1. If chemical analysis is not possible, possible, either femur shaft shaft should be broken broken and the center center onefemur third of the marrow marrow removed removed and visually visually scored scored as third follows. data in Table 11 represent represent all ages since since the The data small seasonal sample sizes sizes did not permit permit segregasegregasmall seasonal sample classes. Two (1) tion of of age classes. Two sources sources of bias bias include: (1) generally exhibit lower condition infawns, which generally dices, were were unevenly distributed distributed among the seasons seasons dices, (2) older older females females predominated predominated during during the winter winter and (2) period. In comparing comparing Poudre Poudre sample sample averages period. averages with those from from other other herds herds it is recommended recommended that the 99 99 those percent confidence interval interval be used with samples samples of percent least 16 15 for the appropriate season. PerPerat least appropriate sex and season. total kidney and femur marrow fat values values of incent total femur marrow dividual compared with Table dividual deer deer may be compared Table 1 data for the appropriate sex and season season and these these should appropriate sex serve as a fairly fairly reliable reliable guide to its relative condiserve its relative tion status. status. However, neither neither kidney fat nor femur femur marrow fat percentages percentages taken taken singly from manow from an individis a reliable reliable indicator indicator of its its relative relative condiual deer deer is status except in those those animals animals in extremely extremely poor tion status or extremely extremely good good condition. or Color Score Score or orange orange 0o Reddish brown or Intermediate between O 0 and 2 11 Intermediate color 2 Light with color 33 White Texture Texture Score Score watery 0o Gelatinous or watery 1 Slightly greasy greasy waxy 2 Soft greasy greasy but not waxy 3·Firm and waxy waxy 3"Firm The color color and texture texture scores scores are are added for a maximum of scoring system is from of 6. This This scor ,,1g system is modified modified from (1955). An An animal animal with a score 5, or 6 Riney (1955). score of 4, 5, probably be in good good to excellent excellent condition. would probably LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE 1955. E-valuating Evaluating condition of free-ranging free-ranging Riney, T. 1955. red deer, deer, (Cervus (Cervus elaphus) with special special reference red reference New Zealand J. J. Sci. and Techto New New Zealand. New nology Section B, 36(5):42936(5):429-463. nolog-y 463. Anderson Allen E. Anderson Assistant Researcher' Assistant Wildlife Researehe and Dean E E.. Medin Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher and Associate Project Leader Leader Project July, 1965 1965 July, �7 Outdoor Facts " '. PUBLISHED THE PU LIS ED BY THE d PARt COLORADO GAME, and PARKS DE DEPT. CO ORAOO GA E, FISH IS Number 24 Number 24 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet PELLET GROUP GROUP DEPOSITION DEPOSITION RATES FOR FOR CAPTIVE CAPTIVE DEER DEER1/1 / PELLET RATES Many tests tests have been made concerning concerning the big Many count technique for censusingdeer. censusingdeer. game pellet pellet group count results have usually been expressed The results expressed as groups deer per of these these tests deposited per deer per day. Nearly Nearly all of tests have been made on a sampling sampling basis. basis. The The following following paragraphs describe describe preliminary results of of an exparagraphs preliminary results periment which total total counts were made of pellet periment in which pellet deer confined under varying groups dropped by deer rates. stocking rates. A project Little Hills EXperiment Experiment Station utiproject at Little lizes series of two-acre browsing lizes a series two-acre paddocks in a browsing intensity study. Adult are stocked stocked for a intensity Adult mule deer deer are twenty day period period in Jan•Jary Jan'lary at rates rates of of 60, 40, 30, 30, 20, and and 10 10 deer deer days per acre. Incidental Incidental to the vege20, per acre. tative studies studies and deer deer physiology studies studies a count was tative groups dropped by the deer deer within made of all pellet pellet grnups Pellet groups were sprayed sprayed with each paddock. Pellet colored paint to prevent prevent duplication in counts from colored year to year. year year. are located near near a ridge ridge top covered covered The paddocks are with pinon-juniper overstory averaging averaging 14 14 percent percent piuon- juniper overstory density. Browse understory understory density averages averages 10. 10.3 density. 3 percent and is composed largely largely of mature mature or decapercent and serviceberry, mountain mahogany, mahogany, dent plants of of serviceberry, bitterbrush, snowber snowberry and big sagebrush. sagebrush. Differbitterbrush, ry and ences between paddocks in availability availability and and abundance abundance of total browse appreciable. Other types of of browse were not appreciable. forage have have been almost almost totally totally unavailable unavailable during the period of stocking because of deep snow. period of becaus e of Pellet groups deposited deer per per day averaged averaged Pellet deposited per deer about thirteen thirteen for the three three year year period. period. From From 1963 1963 about 1965, decrease in pellet through 196 5, a definite decrease pellet groups occurred in the paddocks stocked at thirty thirty deer deer days occurred per acre acre or heavier. heavier. In these utilithese paddocks heavy utiliand juniper occurred and a number of of zation of pine and juniper occurred observed to be in the form of large droppings were observed of large masses rather than pellets. would appear appear that the masses rather pellets. It would effect of over browsing for three three years cumulative ef!ect years under these these conditions resulted resulted in a lower rate rate of "normal" deposition. This difference difference pellet group deposition. " normal" pellet not observed was not observed in more more moderately moderately stocked paddocks. Comparison between paddocks indicates indicates an erratic erratic Comparison pattern pellet group deposition deposition that sseems pattern of pellet eems to be unrelated deer stocking rates. rates. Deer in the WU'elated to the deer lighter stocked pastures seemed to conform more lighter pastures seemed closely accepted rate rate of thirteen thirteen closely to the commonly accepted per day than did the deer deer in the heavily groups per stocked paddocks. This study will continue for two more more years. years. AddiAddicurtional data may enable better better understanding understanding of current variations deposition. rent variations in pellet pellet group deposition. McKean William T. McKean Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher Associate 1965 July, 1965 Pellet Groups Per Per Day Day Occ Occurring In Two-acre Two-acre Paddocks, Little Hills Experiment Deer Pellet urring Io Paddocks, Little Hills Experiment Station, As Determined Determined By By Total Total Counts, Counts, 1963-1965. 1963-1965. Station, As Paddock Paddock Number Number 1 2 33 5 6 Stocking rate rate Stocking in in Deer Days L I Acre Acre Days 60 40 30 20 10 Deer Deer 6 4 3 2 2 1lContribution Federal Aid Project Project W-101 W-101-R. Contribution from Federal - R. 1963 14.9 14.9 16.5 16.S 14.1 14.l 16.1 16.1 1964 10.1 10.1 12.9 12.9 10.5 10.5 13.33 13. 13.0 13.0 1965 10.6 10 .6 11.3 11.3 14.0 14 .0 13.1 D.l Average Average 12.5 12 .5 13.3 13.3 12.0 12.0 15.0 15.0 13.1 13.1 �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED LI BY THE HE COLORADO DEPT. co 0 0 GAME, E, FISH I H and pPARKS DE T. INumber umber 25 Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information TECHNIQUES FOR CENSUS OF SCALED SCALED QUAIL QUAIL l/ 1/ TECHNIQUES FOR CENSUS OF The trend route method for measuring measuring annual trend route scaled quail population levels levels in Colorado has been scaled patterned closely closely after done on on desert patterned after work done desert quail species in Arizona Arizona (Smith (Smith and Gallizioli, Gallizioli, 1963) 1963) and species New Mexico (Harris, (Harris, 1960), 1960). Trend Trend routes routes have been New run on on scaled scaled quail in Texas on a management management basis basis 1952 according Harris {1960). (1960). Many Many of the since 1952 according to Harris techniques establishing census census routes routes for techniques used in establishing pheasants in Colorado were also utilized utilized (Sandfort, _pheasants unpub.). unpub,). Fourteen trend routes have been established Fourteen trend routes established within range of of the species species in southeastern southeastern Colorado. the range routes are are located within nine Wildlife ConThese routes servation Officer Officer Districts, servation Districts, four Scaled Quail ManAreas, and two Supervisor Districts Districts agement Areas, two Area Supervisor 1). (Table 1). Operations Suggested Schedule of Operations Assistant Manager sends six July 1-7 Assistant Game Garne Manager SQ-2 Forms Forms for each trend trend route, route, one SQ-2 map of of route, route, and copy of instrucinstrucand one copy tions to Wildlife Conservation Officers tions Conservation Officers involved. Officers make a August 1-15 Wildlife Conservation Conservation Officers of three three counts on on each trend trend minimum of route.. route September 11 Report Report on scaled scaled quail population status status September is compiled by Assistant Assistant Game Manager Manager IBM report. report. Copies of report report are from IBM are distributed to Wildlife Conservation Conservation distributed Officers, Area Area Supervisors, Supervisors, Regional Officers, Game Managers, Managers, State Game Manager, Manager, others. Information Information to be utilized utilized in and others. season recommendations. recommendations. open season Instructions For For Making Trend-Route Trend-Route Counts Instructions Form --Use SQSQ-2 Form (Scaled quail Form --Use 2 Form trend-route count form) for all trend-route field counts. cQunts and one Number of counts--Make counts--Make two morning morning cqunts evening count on each trend route. trend route. Time of day --Commence morning 5:45 --Commence morning counts at 5:45 A.M. and evening counts at 5:00 A.M. P.M. (Mountain (Mountain Standard Standard Time), Time). P,M. Add one hour to these these times durAdd times dursaving times. times. ing daylight saving Period of year Period of year --Run counts during during period period August --Run 15. 1 to 15. -- Travel route route at average average speed speed of --Travel 15 mph or less. less. 15 Speed of travel travel Miscellaneous Miscellaneous August 17 17 Deadline date for Wildlife Conservation Conservation Officers to make duplicate duplicate records records of Officers three counts on route and to send three on each route original count forms forms (SQ-2) (SQ-2) to Assistant original Assistant Game Manager, Manager, Denver Denver Office. Game August 20 20 August Assistant Game Manager Manager completes completes SQSQAssistant Forms (original (original and duplicate) using 2a Forms using information from SQ-2 SQ-2 Forms. information Forms. He then mails all SQ-2 Forms Forms and original original SQSQmails Form to Colorado State University University 2a Form Statistical Services Services Laboratory, Laboratory, Fort Fort Statistical Collins, Colorado for IBM IBM analysis analysis of Collins, data. 11Contribution Federal Aid Project W-37-R. W-37-R. contribution from Federal Aid Project --Do not sta. startr t count if if wind velocity velocity --Do estimated to be over over 12 12 mph or is estimated during periods periods of other adverse during other adverse weather results will weather conditions as results probably not be reliable reliable. . probably In most it will be necesmost cases, cases, it necessary to stop vehicle sary vehicle and flush all birds birds and to quail to count all secure an accurate accurate count. secure requested Record all information information requested on forms, forms, including including starting starting points, and mileages nearest points, mileages to nearest tenths. tenths, �Table 11 -- The IIndividual Table ndivi dual Scaled Quail Trend Trend Route Routess As Run During 1964. During 1964. Census Census Unit Unit Name No. No. Nome Manage- SuperSuperMonogement visor ment visor Area Areo Area Areo Sondsage _ ___33 Ap ishapo Sandsage .... 1 Apishapa Compo Sondsage Sandsage ..... ..... .4 2 Compo .4 zo Mounta __ __ .4 Carrizo Mountainin ..... 3 Carri C.F.&1. Ditch -···-............ 2 4 C.F.& 1. Ditch ·-- -·-2 Fowler Meso ........... .4 Mesa -·· 5 Fowler -···· ·-- .4 Hanover _____ _ ____ _ _ ___ _ 1 6 Hanover .................... J Holly Sondsage Sandsage -··-··--3 ........ 3 7 Holly Junto-Higbee ...... 8 La Junta-Higbee -,... 3 Lake Setchfield Setchfield ···-........-··3 3 9 Lake _ _ ___ _ _ _ _____ 10 Rule Rule Creek Creek .............. _3 3 JO 11 Wetmore Wetmore Hill _............ ...........22 12 Apishapa Mgmt. Apisl,opo Mgmt. Area .................... 2 Area --··· -·-·---··--· ·2 13 Bessemer Ditch -•··-Bessemer Ditch ........··2 2 14 Seven .............. 2 Seven Lakes Lakes ··-···-·-·--·2 7 7 Total Total Miles Miles W.C.O. W.C.O. 7 7 6 7 6 7 7 7 7 6 C. Leonard Leonard .............. .............. C. 55 ,0 55.0 H. Hood Hood ··········· ................... 62.1 ·•·-- -- 62.1 H. H. Hood Hood --............. _ ... 95.4 95.4 H. ------ ---•·---W. Kent Kent ·.................. w. -·- ···-····-··· 78.0 78 _0 H. Hood Hood --·-·· .................. 65.9 H. ·---·--· - -· 65.9 J_ _______ 85.0 J. Stevenson Stevenson __ ............ 85.0 Graham ---_ ........ 71.1 71.1 M. Grohorn C. Leonard Leonard -·--·-.............. 68.3 C. --- --•· 68.3 Heins -··-···--······ .. __ ._---- ..- ... 58.1 58.1 A. Heins A. Heins Heins ····-·········· ---.-- .._-_ ... _- 69.8 69.8 W. Kent .................. 50.4.4 W. Kent -·- ---------·--- 50 6 6 6 6 6 J. Cordova Cordova .-................. 60,9 J_ 60.9 C. Sealing Sealing •· .. --_-_ •·· ...... 39.1l C. ---·_---· 39. C. Scott Scott -···--··---._--_ .......... 82.4 C. -·-···-· 82.4 -~-------- Total Total Total Totol Min. Broods Min. Broods Young Young 245 245 267 267 353 353 345 345 269 269 370 370 248 248 265 265 222 222 251 251 272 272 1 l 14 23 23 0 2 5 0 5 88 4 2 4 143 143 236 236 0 12 12 46 46 0 34 34 62 62 22 22 18 18 235 235 1 6 0 33 320 320 300 JOO Birds Observed Observed Adults Unclass. Adults Uncloss. 2 29 29 50 50 3 7 6 176 176 321 321 3 3 18 80 80 6 32 32 3 12 12 22 22 11 16 0 4 35 35 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 9 0 0 0 65 65 0 32 32 0 0 Ave. No. Ave. No, Yaung! Young/ Total Total Brood 3 46 46 84 84 33 33 34 34 Birds! Birds/ Mile Mile 4.00 4.00 10.21 10.21 10.26 10.26 0.00 6.00 6.00 9.20 9.20 0.00 0.00 6.80 6.80 7.75 7.75 5,50 5.50 9.00 9 .00 0.11 0. 11 7.00 7.00 5.50 5.50 0.00 0.00 0.15 0 .15 o_oo Totals -·-· ··-·- - ··--- - --- ------·-·· ·-·· -·-··----------·--~--·--------- 941.S 941.5 3,962 3,962 71 617 220 411 878 71 617 220 4 878 Totals Average _ _ -· ------ --------.. _ _ .... ________8_ 8.69 Average ·-- -------- -....._·-··. __ ..... _____ ______ ---- ------ --,-- __ ____________ . --··· __ __ ___--·--______ -·· --· __ . __ .. __,----·-69 2_a4 2.84 3.38 3.38 0.04 0.04 0.27 0.27 0.94 0.94 0.04 0.04 0.68 0.68 1.45 1.45 0.47 0.47 0.68 0.68 1.66 1.66 o_oo 0.00 0.93 0 ,93 Average length of of routes-22 routes-22.4 .4 miles. mi les. Average length Average running routes-94.3 routes-94.3 minutes. Average time time for for running minutes. Average for all routes-14.3 4 .3 mph. mph. mph for c 11routes-1 Average mph -- Scaled guail Quail Trend Route Route Inf Table 2 -- Scaled Information 1959-1964. Table ormation 1959-1964. Year Year 1959 1959 1960 1960 1961 1961 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 Number Number Routes Routes Minimum M-inimum Number Number Counts Counts Eac;h Route Route Each 10 2 10 10 11 1I 8 2 1 14 14 3 3 3 3 4 3 Number Number Broods Broods Recorded Recorded Routes On Routes Counts All Counts Number Number Misc. Misc. Broods Broods Average Averoge Young Per Young Per Brood Birds Birds Per Per Mile Mile Average' Averoge' Covey Covey Size Size Total Total Quail Quoil Counted Counted Young to Young to Adult Adult Ratio Ratio 66 66 49 49 18 44 44 78 78 34 34 8.9 8.9 8.1 8,1 7.8 7.8 8.00 8_ 7.8 7.8 3.5 3.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 14.5 14.5 11.1 1 1.1 16.8 16.8 12.8 12.8 11.2 11.2 1656 1656 18 18 19 19 13 8 725 725 475 475 682 682 l1082 082 284: 100 100 284: 242: 100 100 242: 108:100 108 : 100 204: 100 204: l 00 204:100 204: 100 71 0 8.7 8 .7 0.9 0.9 12.3 12.3 878 878 280: 100 100 280: 1l 3 3 'Based upon two highest out of the the tota total l number mode ((1959-1962) and IBM computations computa tions (1 (1963-1964). highest counts counts out number made 1939-1962) and 963-1964). 'Based upon birds. ''Covey-three Covey-three or more more birds. �400 W 3o0 _--+-___ _ ____.,._ _ _ _--1--_ _ _----1-_ _ __ +--_ __ --l _J ~ a:: 0:: w W (L 0.. 200 (J) (f) 0o 0:: a:: lD CD 100 1959 1959 1960 1960 1961 1962: 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 YEAR YEAR Figure Figure 11 --- Population Population Trends Trends Of Scaled Scaled Quail Quail A,s As Indicated Indicated By By Trend-Route Trend-Route counts, counts, 1959-1964. 1959-1964. �Figure 2 --- Scaled Quail Habitat Habitat Along Along The Lake Setchfield Setchfield Trend Route, Figure Bent County, Colorado. Directions call call for the running of Directions routes going away from from the sun routes where possible for best where possible best counting conditions cover both ends conditions and to cover routes at opt~mum opt~mum times. times. of the routes requires the reversing reversing of This requires directions of running running routes routes for directions for morning and evening countscounts' in the morning most cases. cases. most Results Results Information relative relative to the 14 14 trend routes in Information trend routes existence in 1964 1964 is listed listed in Table 1. 1. The average existence average length of all routes miles and the average routes was 22.4 miles average time spent spent in securing securing the counts amounted to 94.3 time minutes per route. An average miles per minutes per route. average of 14.3 miles per hour maintained for all routes routes counted. was maintained comparison of scaled scaled quail trend-route trend-route counts A comparison 1959 to 1964 1964 is shown in Table 2. The by years years from from 1959 two highest highest counts of the total were total made each year year were averaged determine population population levels levels based based upon averaged to determine birds from 1959 1959 through through 1962. 1962.Data collected birds per per mile mile from Data collected 1963 and 1964 1964 were were analyzed analyzed by the Colorado in 1963 Colorado State University Statistical Statistical Services Services Laboratory Laboratory using using all University suitable counts. counts. Figure Figure 1 shows population trends trends of of suitable scaled quail from 1959 1959 to 1964. 1964. scaled summer period period population level level of 3.5 birds birds The summer per 1959 was the highest highest level recorded recorded durdurper mile in 1959 surveys ing the study period. period. Kill data from random surveys by Grieb and Hunter (1959) (1959) indicate, indicate, however, that 1958 population was considerably considerably higher higher than the the 1958 1959 level. level recorded recorded durdur1959 level. The lowest population level 0.9 birds per per mile in the summer summer ing the study was 0. 9 birds 1964. of 1964. Literature Cited Literature Cited Grieb, J. R., and G. G. N. 1959. Colorado Colorado small small Grieb, N. Hunter. 1959, game hunter hunter harvest 1958. ProjectW-88-R. ProjectW-88-R. harvest survey survey 1958. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish, Fish, Denver. Denver. 28 28 pp. Mimeo. Harris, B. K. 1960. 1960. Quail trend trend routes routes as a managemanageHarris, Proc. West. Assoc. Assoc. Game and Fish Fish ment tool. Proc. Comm. 40:220-204. 40:220- 204. Sandfort, W. W. Unpub. Unpub. Methods of of censusing censusing pheasSandfort, W. W. pheasants. 8 pp. I\'!imeo. ants. "! imeo. Smith, R. H. H. and S. Gallizioli. Gallizioli. 1963. 1963. Gambel quail population trend trend techniques. techniques. Completion Completion Report Report Proj. W-78-R-7. W-78-R-7. Arizona Fish Dept., Proj. Arizona Game and Fish Mimeo. 22 pp. Mirneo. Phoenix. 22 Hoffman Donald M. Hoffman Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher Associate July, 1965 1965 July, �0"L1 doo1~ Facts Outdoor PUBLISHED av BY Tl-1E THE PUBLISHED COLORADO ISH and PARKS COLORADO GAME, GAME, F FISH PARKS DEPT. DEPT. Game Information. Information Leaflet Game Leaflet 14 ., ~ Number26 Number 26 MOURNING MOURNING DOVE MIGRATION MIGRATION IN COLORADO COLORADO l/ 1/ An An average average of 140,000 140,000 mourning doves have been harvested harvested annually in Colorado since since 1955. 1955. The actual figure figure has varied varied somewhat somewhat each year year but usually usually not to aa large large degree. degree. Numbers of of hunters hunters afield, however, have increased adily from increased ste steadily from under 14,000 14,000 in 1955 1955 to about 22,000 in 1964. 1964. The average average season season therefore,e, has been decreasing decreasing to the present present bag, therefor level level of of approximately approximately 88 birds birds per per hunter. hunter. This has occurred occurred even though though bag and and possession possession limits limits have been increased increased in the hunting regulation regulation somewhat somewhat over the years, years, and lengths of of seasons seasons have been increased creased from 45 45 to 60 60 days since 1955. 1955. It It is is apparent apparent that interest interest in in dove hunting is ineasing but that cr creasing that our harvest harvest is remaining remaining relatively relatively stable. stable. Possibly Possibly there there are are several several reasons reasons for the leveling off of numbers numbers of of birds birds harvested harvested annually. annually. present in in the Central Central Management Management Numbers of doves present Unit, Unit, of of which Colorado is aa part, part, have declined somewhat since since 1957 1957 but Fish Fish and Wildllie Wildlife Service Service surveys surveys have shown shown there there are are as many doves inhabitin the Eastern Eastern and Western Western units ing this unit as in recovery rates rates in this this unit are are only combined. Band recovery about half of what tbey they are are in the other other units. units. The reason reason for for low low recover recoveryy rates rates which which has been susyears (period (period of time doves are are pected for many years present present within Colorado in association association with hunting hunting season dates) was studied studied in 1962 1962 and 1963. 1963.Wayne W. season Wayne W. initiated the study with the following following objecSandfort initiated tives: tives: (1) (1) to to determine determine when when peaks in in dove dove numbers numbers occurred occurred by latitude latitude ~ones :3ones within the State, State, (2) (2) to compare iods and compare per periods and peaks of dove dove migration migration through through normal hunting season season dates, dates, and (3) (3) to Colorado with normal compare compare flocking and migration migration phenomena with climatic climatic conditions. It was thought that documentation documentation of data regarding regarding these these objectives objectives would would either either prove or disprove disprove the belief belief that that early early migration migration of of doves out out of of Colorado was aa major major limiting limiting factor factor to dove dove hunting success. success. The investigation investigation had had its its origin origin under Feder al Aid 37-R, Game Federal Aid Project Project WW-37-R, Game Bird Bird Sur1963), but was transferred transferred to Federal Federal veys (Sandfort, 1963), 1Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project WW-88-R. !contribution 88- R. Aid W- 88-R, Migratory Aid Project Project W-88-R, Migratory Bird Bird Investigations Investigations (Funk (Funk 1964), 1964), in 1963. 1963. The efforts efforts of of numerous numerous Department partment personnel personnel who who helped set set up and conduct various various segments segments of the 1Jrogram program made the study study possible. possible. The State udinal zones State was divided into three three latit latitudinal (north, central central and and south) and two two longitudinal longitudinal zones (one (one east east and one west of of the Continent~tl Continental Divide) for for a total total of of six areas. areas. One One roadside roadside census census route route about 30 miles miles in length was selected selected within each each area. area. The eastern eastern routes routes were chosen chosen near near Fort Fort Collins, Collins, Castle Castle Rock were Rock and and Springfield while the western western routes routes were located near Cortez. ln near Craig, Grand Junction, and Cortez. In 1962 weekly counts were conducted on 1962, on each route route for 1 11 11 weeks starting starting in late July. Counts in 1963 1963 were were begun in midJuly and continued for 13 mid-July i3 weeks. Two counts were made made on each each route eveiry every week. An evening count was followed followed the next day by by a morning morning census and and data from from the the two two counts wer weree averaged. averaged. Data from the two two years years of of study were~ were quite simisimilar, lar, with peak numbers numbers of of birds birds occurring occurring in the first first three weeks of August (see Figure Figure 1). 1). An ex. exceptiontbree c eptionlarge number of of doves present present in the Craig Craig area area ally large was mainly responsible responsible for the earlier earlier peak peak in numbers bers in in 1963 1963 over 1962 1962 and also also for for the later later decline decline dove population population during the san1le same year. year. The in the dove study indicated that numbers numbers of of doves present present at the end of August, immediately immediately before before hunting season, season, 42 per percent numbers in 1962 1962 and declined 42 cent from peak numbers 39 percent percent in 1963. 1963. Surveys conducted within the week 39 following September 11 revealed revealed that dove numbers numbers following had dropped 67 om peak numbers 67 percent percent fr from numbers in 1962 1962 and 68 68 percent percent in 1963. 1963. This means that that almost almost half of the peak population had left prior prior to the beginning of of of the dove dove season. season. Also, it can be seell seen in Figure Figure 1 that dove most of the dove numbers numbers declined declined rapidly rapidly in most State after after September 11 and and most were gone gone by the of tbe the month. Increases Increases in doves present end of present in Colorado Colorado after after September September 11 were due due to high counts �in in the Springfield Springfield area area in in 1962 1962 and near near Craig Craig in 1963 1963 (dotted lines). lines). Results Results of of correlation correlation of weather weather data with dove dove numbers numbers disclosed disclosed that the relationship relationship betw,;en betw~en dove migration migration and and widely varying varying and dedecreasing creasing temperatures, temperatures, which are are in turn turn associated associated with precipitation, precipitation, is quite strong strong but also also erratic. erratic. This suggests suggests that that environmental environmental conditions, conditions, not necessarily essarily those those limited limited to Colorado, may be largely largely responsible responsible for for population levels levels in the State at any any one time. time. Hunting Hunting migratory migratory bird bird species species before before September September 11 is prohibited prohibited by the Migratory Migratory Bird T'reaty Treaty between North American American countries countries and probably probably will not be revised, revised, at least least in in the near near future. future. Concentrated Concentrated banding studies studies are are now now under way way by the states states and the Fish Fish and and Wildlife Service Service to gain more more knowledge about dove management. management. Within aa few few years years we may be able able to better better utilize utilize our our dove dove population with the assurance assurance that we will not harm their their source. source. REFERENCES REFERENCES ........• Funk, H. ll. D. D. 1964. 1964. Dove Dove migration migration investigation. investigation. Colo. Game, Research Game, Fish, Fish, and and Parks Parks Dept. Ga.me Game Research Report. October. October. pp. 89-113 89-113 13 13 figs figs.. U,I 1.1.I 55 i1 5 ffi W. W. W. 1963. 1963. Location and and census. census. Colo. Sandfort, W. Game, Game, Fish, and and Parks Parks Dept. GaLIDe Game Research Research Rep01·t. Report. October, Part Part 2. 2. pp. 225-23'1'. 225-237. a: cc 11,1 1.1.I 4G Cl,. CI. en ct) 11,1 , ~3 i; Q ClI Cl ~.~:><:. , .•.•. AUGUST 2:9-2 SEPTE",aE'l 2:-7 9-13 23-21 OCTOBE:R 30-4 1-11 Figure . --Statewide mourning Figure !l.--Statewide mourning dove population trend trend in Colorado, 1962 1962 and 1963, 1963. Howard D. Funk Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant July, 1965 1965 �t Outdoor Facts 0 F PUBLISHED PUBLISI E Id BY Y THE THE "~ '. ... ;'.' . COLORADO GAME, FISH and PARKS DEPT. C I ORAOO GAME, ud PAR K S DEPT Game Information Information Leaflet Number 27 Game Leaflet Number 27 EVALUATION OF A A COMBINED COMBINED BLUE BLUE GROUSE-WILD TURKEY EVALUATION GROUSE-WILD TURKEY HUNTING SEASON HUNTING SEASON 1/ October 5-13, 1963, 1963, wild turkey turkey season season was The October grouse season season on combined with a post post blue grouse on the Plateau, A sample hunter opinion Uncompahgre Plateau. sample of hunter determine the popularity was obtained to determine popularity of the joint joint season. The season season was favored favored by 95 season. 95 percent percent of the 92 hunters questioned. None believed believed that grouse grouse 92 hunters questioned. None hunters interfered with turkey turkey hunting, or that that hunters had interfered turkey hunters hunters had hurt hurt grouse grouse hunting. Three Three huntturkey ers opposed the season, season, mainly because because they thought ers there were not enough grouse grouse to withstand withstand addithat there tional hunting. Forty-six Forty-six grouse during tional grouse were checked during season, giving a success success ratio ratio of of .56 grouse grouse per per the season, hunter. Hunters Hunters observed 105 grouse grouse which indicates indicates hunter. observed 105 additional hunting of grouse grouse during during the turkey turkey that additional season did not seriously seriously decimate decimate the grouse grouse populaseason tion. Law enforcement enforcement personnel presented the major Law personnel presented major argument against against opening the combined grouse grouse and argument turkey season. A poacher excuse to be in turkey season. poacher has an excuse turkey turkey license. license, A turkey ccountry ountry without a turkey A person person pretend to hunt grouse grouse until he kills kills a turkey, turkey, may pretend go to town and purchase purchase a license, license, and return return to the go area to bring bring the bird bird out, outo A few turkeys turkeys hunting area killed with rifles since hunters may might be illegally illegally killed With rifles since hunters carry them for shooting shooting grouse. grouse. One One hundred and carry four hunters hunters were contacted contacted during during the turkey season. turkey season. 11Contribution Federal Aid Project Project W-37W-37-R. contribution from Federal R. Only four hunters, hunters, othe otherr than juveniles, Only juveniles, did not have turkey license license and said they were were hunting grouse. grouse. a turkey Therefore, 3.8 percent Therefore, percent of the hunters hunters ""might" might" have hunted turkeys grouse license. license, turkeys with a grouse facts indicate indicate that grouse grouse hunting during during Available facts the regular regular turkey season in early early October turkey season October is a sound management practice, practice, provided grouse are are reasonablv reasonablv management provided grouse area. abundant in the area. Table 1. -- Combined Combined Turkey-Grouse Turkey-Grouse Hunting Hunting Table 1. Season Statistics, Statistics, Uncompahgre Uncompahgre Plateau, Plateau, Season October 1963. October Number hunters hunters checked checked . . . . . .. .. • .. .•• Number . 104 Number hunting hunting turkeys turkeys . • . • . •. •. . .• .••. 100 Number Number seen . turkeys seen. 145 Number turkeys Number turkeys Number turkeys killed killed 20 Success ratio. ratio. . Success . .. .. ,.20 20 Number hunting grouse. grouse . Number hunting 82 Number grouse seen seen . ...•.••.•. Number grouse . . . . . . . . . 105 Number grouse killed • .. .. . .. . .. 46 Number grouse killed . .• ,. . Success ratio ratio . ....•...•.••. Success . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Myers Gary T. Myers Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant July, 1965 July, 1965 �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED B BY• THE THE PUBLISHED COLORADO GAME,, FISH and PA PARKS DEPT. CO ORADO GAM KS DEPT Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet lif Number 2 28 Number 8 THE EFFECTS EFFECTS OF SMALL SMALL RODE RODENTS DEERWINTER WI TER RANGE RANGE l1// TH~ TS 0ON DEER other small small rodents rodents have "Do the native mice mice and other important effect effect on deer deer winter winter range?" range?" an important To answer the question question the Research Research Divis Division answer ion conducted intensive study in Mes Mesaa Verde National Park Park from from an intensive 1956 through 1964. 1956 through 1964, pinon-juniper selected for study was a pinon-juniper The range selected deer range range containing containing the five most important deer important browse browse plants in Colorado: Colorado: antelope bitterbrush, mountain plants antelope bitterbrush, serviceberry, oakbrush, and big sagesagemahogany, serviceberry, oakbrush, brush. brush. small rodents rodents in the study area area The population of small deer mice mice, Peromyscus Peromyscus maniculatus; maniculatus; pinon included deer mice, E... truei; brush brush mice, ~ boylie; western harharmice, E.,. truei; mice, ~ boylie; western vest mice, Reithrodontomys Reithrodontomys megalotis; megalotis; Mexican vole, vest mice, Microtus mexicanus; mexicanus; Colorado Colorado chipmunk, Eutamias Microtus Eutamias guadrivittatus; and least least chipmunk,~chipmunk, ~. minimus. minimus. quadrivittatus; Two adjoining 33-acre established. One, Two acre plots were were established, the exclosure, exclosure, was fenced rodents; the fenced to exclude rodents; control was provided control provided with a dummy fence. fence, Rodents enter the exclosure, exclosure, but they could enter enter could not enter control. Deer Deer had access access to both. and leave the control. Rodents were were removed removed from exclosure by from the exclosure trapping during trapping and poisoning, and kept under under control control during the study in the same same manner. manner. Parker-Savage transects, , which pr provided density, ParkerSavage transects ovided density composition, and abundance data for each plant spespecomposition, cies along a transect, principal technique cies transect, were were the principal technique used determining rodent rodent effects effects on the vegetation. vegetation. used in determining In addition, yearly yearly pictures were taken taken of the the vegetavegetapictures were stations. tion at permanent permanent stations. A rodent rodent census census was made yearly, a standard yearly, using usingastandard snap-trap provided information information on the size size snaptrap method. It provided of the population population and how how it fluctuated. fluctuated. An An important important part census was the dete determination part of the census rmination of homesize by capturing, marking, and recapturing recapturing range size capturing, marking, rodents. rodents. Rodents in the vicinity vicinity of the study were were trapped trapped during spring, spring, summer, fall, and winter. winter. The contents contents during summer, fall, 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-101-R. c ontribution from W- 101 - R. stomachs were were examined determine the of their their stomachs examined to determine proportions of foods eaten. eaten. Dead browse kinds and pr oportions of browse plants were dug up and plants in the vicinity vicinity of the study were examined for rodent rodent girdling. girdling. examined Final results examination and appraisal appraisal of Final results await examination collected and publication publication of a final all information information collected report. However, preliminary observareport. preliminary and tentative tentative observations can be made: tions 1. None bitterbrush, big big sagebrush, 1. None of the dead bitterbrush, sagebrush, serviceberry, and mountain mahogany plants examserviceberry, plants exambeen girdled rodents. ined had been girdled by rodents. 2. During the first years of the sstudy first four years tudy there there were changes in the vegetation vegetation attributed attributed to were no changes rodents. rodents. 3. The population vicinity of the population of rodents rodents in the vicinity plots, during seven years years in which censuses study plots, during the seven censuses were ta.ken, taken, peaked the third year and hit a low the were third year fifth year. peak of the population 12 times times year. The peak population was 12 the level level of the low point. 4. The population small rodents rodents was comprised comprised population of small percent deer deer mice, mice, 5 of 70 percent mice, 20 percent percent pinon mice, percent harvest harvest mice, mice, 20 20 percent percent Mexican voles voles,, 2 percent percent chipmunks, chipmunks, and 1 percent brush mice. percent percent brush mice. rodent popula": 5. The species species composition composition of the rodent populafluctuated greatly greatly from from year year to year year with harvest harvest tion fluctuated mice being the most most variable. variable. 6. When When the rodent rodent population population was largest 1960, 6, largest in 1960, estimated by one method to be 18 the density dens ity was estimated animals per per acre. acre. If this estimate of of the animals this is a close close estimate range, cercermaximum population population on a pinon-juniper pinon- juniper range, tainly these these small small rodents rodents can have no appreciable appreciable tainly effect range. effect on the range, 7. A superficial superficial examination rodent stomach stomach 7. examination of rodent contents indicates summer food is contents indicates that that much of the summer insects. insects. 8. It seems seems logical assume that that serious serious small small 8. logical to assume rodent damage to a pinonpinon-juniper range such as the rodent juniper range one studied studied would would occur occur rarely rarely during irruptions of during irruptions the population. population. Harold Shepherd Harold R. Shepherd Associate Researcher Associate Wildlife Wildlife Researcher August, 1965 1965 �Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT or OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION Of OF GAME. GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION Game Info rmation Leaflet Information Leaflet 4!f Number 28 (Revised) EFFECTS OF SMALL RODENTS RODENTS ON DEER DEER WINTER RANGE RANGEl1 THE EFFECTS "Do the the native native mice and and other other small small rodents rodents have have an an important important effect on deer winter winter range?" range?" To answer answer this this question question the the Research Research Division Division conducted conducted an an intensive intensive study study in in Mesa Mesa Verde National National Park Park from 1956 through through 1964. 1964. 1956 The The range range selected selected for study study was was a pinyonpinyonjuniper the five most juniper deer range range containing containing the most important important browse browse plants plants in Colorado: Colorado: antelope antelope bitterbrush, bitterbrush, mountain mahogany, mahogany, serviceberry, serviceberry, oakbrush, oakbrush, and and big mountain sagebrush. sagebrush. The The population population of small small rodents rodents in the study study area area included included deer mice, Perumyscus Peromyscus maniculatus; maniculatus; pinyon pinyon mice, P. truei; truei; brush brush mice, P. boylei; boy lei; western western harvest mice, Reithrodontomys Reithrodontomys megalotis; Me,dcan Mexican harvest megalotis; vole, Microtus mexicanus; Colorado Microtus mexicanus; Colorado chipmunk, chipmunk, Eutamias quadriuittatus; quadrivittatus; and least least chipmunk, chipmunk, E. Eutamias and minimus, mznzmus. Two adjoining adjoining 3-acre plots plots were established. established. One, the the exclosure, exclosure, was fenced to exclude exclude rodents; rodents; the the control was was provided provided with with a dummy dummy fence. fence. Rodents Rodents control not enter enter the the e:xclosure, exclosure, but but they they could enter enter and and could not leave leave the the control control plot. Deer Deer had had access access to both. both. Rodents Rodents were removed removed from the the exclosure exclosure by trapping trapping and and poisoning, poisoning, and and were kept under under control control during during the the study study in the the same same manner. manner. Parker-Savage Parker-Savage transects, transects, which which provided provided densidensity, composition, composition, and and abundance abundance data data for each each plant plant along a transect, transect, were the the pr principal techniques species along incipal techniques used used in in determining determining rodent rod en t effects on the vegetation. vegetation. In addition, taken of the addition, yearly yearly pictures pictures were taken the vegetation vegetation at at permanent permanent stations. stations. A rodent rodent census census was was made made yearly, yearly, using using a standard standard snap-trap snap-trap method. method. It provided provided information information on the the size of the the population population and and how it fluctuated. fluctuated. An An important part part of the the census census was was the the determination determination of important home-range home-range size by capturing, capturing, marking, marking, and and recaprecapturing turing rodents. rodents. Rodents Rodents in the the vicinity vicinity of the the study study were trapped trapped during during spring, spring, summer, summer, fall, and and winter. winter. The The contents contents •Contribution 'Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-101-R. W-IOI-R. their stomachs stomachs were examined examined to determine determine the the of their kinds kinds and and proportions proportions of foods eaten. eaten. Dead Dead browse browse plants plants in the the vicinity vicinity of the study study were dug dug up and and examined for rodent rodent girdling. girdling. examined Major conclusions conclusions of the the stud,y study were: l. 1. Deer mice mice and and pinyon pinyon mice are are the the most most abundant Todent rodent species species in the pinyon-juniper type type abundant the pinyon-juniper studied, studied, and and they they fluctuate fluctuate greatly greatly in number number from from year year to year. year. Population Population highs highs for pinyon pinyon mice may may be more more than than 25 times times population population lows. The The combined combined population density density for deer mice and and pinyon pinyon mice was population estimated estimated to vary vary from 8.15 to 0.82 animals animals per acre. Results suggest suggest that, that, if the the study study were were conducted conducted Results during during a population population high, high, mouse mouse population population highs highs in the study study area area would be about about 10 10 animals animals per acre. the 2. yon mice is 2. Since Since the the diet of deer mice and and pin pinyon composed large proportion composed of a large proportion of insects insects during during spring spring and ighest, and and summer summer when when mouse mouse populations populations are are hhighest, and of vegetation vegetation in fall and and winter winter when when their their populations populations are are lowest, lowest, their their consumption consumption of of vegetation vegetation and and their their effect effect on the the range range is minimal. minimal. 3. The The high high consumption consumption of insects, insects, including including such plant plant eaters eaters and and defoliators defoliators as tent-caterpillars, tent-caterpillars, crickets, crickets, and and beetles beetles suggests suggests that that deer mice mice and, and, to a on mice are probably lesser lesser extent, extent, piny pinyon probably more beneficial beneficial than harmful harmful to a pinyon-juniper pinyon-juniper deer range. range. A finding finding than which which further further suggests suggests that that these these mice are are more beneficial beneficial than than harmful harmful to this this deer range range is that that juniper berries comprised juniper berries comprised such such a large large proportion proportion of their diets. By eating eating juniper juniper berries, berries, they they may may help their prevent prevent the the spread spread of junipers junipers and and further further the the growth growth of understory understory browse browse plants plants so important important to deer. 4. 4. Mountain Mountain mahogany mahogany was the the only browse browse plant plant consumed consumed in important important amounts. amounts. 5. Starchy Starchy material, material, probably probably seed endosperm, endosperm, was frequently found in frequently found in stomachs stomachs of deer deer mice and and pinyon pinyon mice. Because Because such such material material could not not be identified, seeds are identified, are probably probably a more more important important source source of food than than the the data data indicate. indicate. 6. Although Although the the literature literature reports, reports, and and the the 6. author author has has observed, observed, that that mice in other other areas areas sometimes sometimes severely severely damage damage browse browse plants plants by girdling, girdling, no browse browse plants plants among among many many live and and dead dead ones ones examined examined in this this study study had had been been girdled. girdled. This This suggests suggests that that damage damage to browse browse plants plants by girdling girdling of deer mice mice and and pinyon pinyon mice occurs occurs very infrequently. infrequently. Serious Serious girdling girdling would likely likely occur at at infrequent infrequent intervals intervals when when high high rodent rodent populations populations and and deep snows snows occurred uJtaneously. curred sim simultaneously. �7. 7. Rodents Rodents had had no measurable measurable effect on the the density, density, composition, composition, and and frequency frequency of vegetation vegetation on the pinyon -juniper deer the pinyon-juniper deer range range in this this study. study. 8. Int the rodent population of In summary, summary, the rodent population of the the study than study area1 area appears appears to be far far more more beneficial beneficial than detrimental detrimental to the the pinyon-juniper pinyon-juniper deer deer range. range. Harold Harold R. Shepherd Shepherd Associate Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Associate Researcher July 1977 (revised July (revised from August 1965) August �OlJ_ tdoor Facts Outdoor Facts --3: *-iY" PUBLISHl:D PUBLISHED BY THE THE • j. COLORADO COLORADO GAME, GAME, r-1SH FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT DEPT. Number29 Number 29 Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet RELIABILITY OF RELIABILITY OF TURKEY TURKEY SEX SEX AND AND AGE AGE RATIO RATIO DATA BASED ON CARD l/ DATABASED ON HUNTER HUNTER REPORT REPORT CARD RETURNS RETURNS 1/ During the October 5-13, De5-13, and and November 2323-December cember 1, 1, 1963 1963 turkey turkey seasons seasons on the Uncompahgre Plateau, Plateau, 62 62 of the turkeys turkeys killed were examined at check stations stations (Table 1). 1). Of Of this number, six were were of undetermined undetermined sex sex and age. Basing Basing sex sex and age ratios ratios of the kill on data data from the 56 56 birds birds of known known sex and age, the kill consisted consisted of 9 percent percent toms, toms, 14 14 percent percent hens, and 77 77 percent percent poults, poults. Yet figures figures based based on hunter report report card card returns returns indicate indicate that that the kill was comprised comprised of 39 39 percent percent toms, toms, 37 37 percent percent hens, and 24 24 percent percent poults poults (Figure (Figure 1). 1). The relationship relationship between kill figures figures based based on hunte1· hunter checks and and kill figures figures from hunter report report card card returns returns was tested tested by ChiChisquare square value was "greater square analysis. analysis. The ChiChi-square "greater than" than" 90 (with two degrees degrees of freedom) indicating indicating that that the ratio ratio of hens, toms, toms, andpoults and poults in the reported reported kill kill differed differed significantly significantly from from the kill f.igures figures obobtained tained from from the check station station sample, sample. This difference difference could could be due to the hunter's hunter's inability inability to sex and age turkeys. turkeys. At At check stations, stations, hunters hunters were asked whether, whether they had killed a tom, hen, or poult. Onefourth of the One-fourth turkeys turkeys killed killed by hunters hunters were were incorrectly incorrectly called called toms toms or hens. This This small small sample sample indicated indicated (with (with a 95 95 percent percent chance of being correct) correct) that that hunters hunters on the Uncompahgre Plateau Plateau incorrectly incorrectly identified identified aa miniUncompahgre 95 and aa maximum maximum of of 163 163 poults as being mum of 95 either etther hens hens or toms. If hunters hunters report report the sex sex and age kills based based on their their own own judgement, judgement, the sex and of kills age composition of kill will be inacof the reported reported kill curate. curate. Further Further proof of of error error in reported reported kill can be 11Contribution contribution from R. from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-37W-37-R. seen seen by comparing comparing the reported reported poult kill in 1961 1961 with the number of poults poults checked in the field, field. All but two of the 37 poults reportedly reportedly killed killed in the study area area were were examined at check stations stations while only only 19 19 of the 140 140 hens, said said to have been killed, killed, were were examined. There There is no no reason reason to believe believe that that check station station personnel personnel would would be more more likely to examine poults than hens. 200~ 200 - -- - --------------~ 150 100 50 o Reported Kill Figure Figure 1. 1. Comparison Comparison of sampled, sampled, reported., reported, and predicted predicted kill during the 1963 1963 turkey turkey season season on the Plateau. The actual actual kill probably probably lies lies Uncompahgre Plateau. somewhere somewhere within the black black area area in tbe the estimated estimated kill kill columns. �Table 1-. 1.-Structure of Turkey Turkey Kill Examined Study Area Area Table - - Sex and Age Structure Examined by Biologis Biologistt in the t he Study October October 1-13 and November December 1 1, 1963. November 23 -- December October Season Season October No. Killed Killed Toms Toms Hens Poults Poults Hens or Poults Poults Rens Total Tot al 3 6 24 3 36 Per Cent of Kill 8 17 67 8 100 Conclusion: Best estimates ratio estimates of the sex and age ratio turkey kill kill can be obtained by determining determining conof the turkey fidence limits limits from from check station station data. Sex and age ratios of the turkey based on hunter ratios turkey kill based hunter report report card card returns are are not accurate accurate, , probably probably because because hunters returns bunters November November Season Season No. Killed Killed 2 2 19 3 26 Cent Per Cent of Kill of 8 8 73 11 100 Both Seasons Combined Combined Bo th Seasons No. NO. Killed Killed 5 8 43 6 62 Per Cent Kill of Kill 8 13 69 10 100 are unable to sex and age turkeys. turkeys. are Myers Gary T. Myers Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant 1965 August, 1965 �01-1t.doo1.'t Outdoor Facts Facts J PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE .'~' ~: COLORADO COLORADO GAME. GAME, FISH FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. Game Game Information.Leaflet InformationLeaflet Number30 Number 30 AERIAL CENSUS H NIQUES....l.J AERIAL WATERFOWL WATERFOWL CENSUS TEC TECHNIQUES--.1J Aerial Aerial census of of many many different different species species of of wildlife wildlife has become the accepted accepted way way of determining determining populapopulation status status and trends. trends. Both helicopter helicopter and and fixed-wing craft craft are are employed, the choice choice being primarily primarily one one of of particular particular adaptation to the work at at hand. hand. The general general use of uch purposes of aircraft aircraft for ssuch purposes is is so so well docudocumented that details details need need not not be covered here. here. The The purpose purpose of this leaflet, leaflet, rather, rather, is to to outline the specifspecific use of of aircraft aircraft in in censusing censusing waterfowl, the the unique adaptations adaptations of of technique involved, and and the necessity necessity for developing and training training competent competent observers. observers. Aircraft Aircraft use in waterfowl waterfowl census is limited limited entireentirely to fixed-wing fixed-wing craft, craft, and and is further further limited limited almost almost entirely entirely to the high-wing monoplane. Only Only in in the hands of an uncommonly wing uncommonly capable pilot can a lowlow-wing plane be be used, and and even even then it leaves leaves something to be desired--namely visibility. visibility. Helicopters Helicopters have a tentendesired--namely dency to flush or otherwise otherwise disturb disturb birds birds long long before before the craft for the observer craft can be brought close enough enoughforthe observer to to make aa count. In Colorado, Colorado, we we are are concerned concerned with two two entirely entirely different different types types of of aerial aerial waterfowl counting, as follows: (1) (1) Duck Duck breeding-pair breeding-pair inventories inventories during May, May, lows: when birds birds are are counted counted as individuals individuals or pairs, pairs, and must must be searched searched for, and and (2) (2) duck duck and and goose goose wintering ing population inventories inventories during and immediately immediately following hunting seasons, seasons, when when birds birds are are counted counted in in large r eeding- pair inlarge groups or flocks. Generally, Generally, bbreeding-pair inventories e, ventories a.re are made by using aa sampling sampling procedur procedure, birds occurring occurring on on randomly selected selected blocks where birds or transects transects a.re are counted counted and then projected projected for for the the total area area under consideration. consideration. Wintering Wintering population total counts counts are are nearly nearly always total total counts, or or an estimaestimation of the the total, total, on on a group of of lakes or reservoirs, reservoirs, tion or or aa river. river. breeding-pair requires aa particuparticuSpring breedingpair counting requires lar type of of training training on on the part part of of the observer. observer. The The lar ability to to identify ducks by by species species with only only a brief brief glance must be developed, as well as an attitude attitude of extr extraa alertness alertness in searching searching for ducks. The The birds birds are are often surrounded surrounded by heavy cover and and are are also often isol ated from other due.ks, isolated ducks, so that aa great great deal of of unproductive searching searching roust must always always accompany every every successful sighting. Air-ground Air-ground comparison comparison counts counts successful show show conclusively that that the different different duck species species are are 1lContributed Federal Aid Aid Project Project WW-BB-R. contributed from Federal 88-R. Figure 1.l.--Aerial winter duck concentration concentration Figure -Aerial view of winter (mostly mallards) mallardS) at Bonny Bonny Reservoir Reservoir near near BurlingBurlington, Colorado. not observed proportions, even by highly observed in the same same proportions, experienced experienced observers. observers. Correction Correction factor factorss can be computed, but their their application application must must depend upon having obse:rvers observers with nearly nearly equal abilities. abilities. It is, is, therefore, o,f of utmost importance for an observer observer to therefore, utmost importance train train himself himself to see see everything everything which can be seen. seen. The tech:nique technique of making winter winter waterfowl inventories tories requ:ires requires a different different type of training training on on the part part of of the the observer. observer. Here, Here, an absolute absolute breakdown by species is not highly important, important, as wintering wintering duck specie·s flocks in Colorado Colorado usually usually consist consist of at at least least 95 95 perpermallards. Rather, Rather, the acquir acquired ability to rapidly rapidly cent mallards. ed ability and and accurately accurately estimate estimate the number number of birds birds in a should be the observer's observer's chief attribute. attribute. Even flock should! on rivers, rivers, ducks tend to concentrate concentrate in flocks flocks of several several hundred, hundred, and on lakes lakes and reservoirs reservoirs flocks of of several several thousand thousand are are common. Lakes reservoirs a.re Lakes and reservoirs are counted by circling circling the perimeter perimeter and then stripping stripping the open water. water. At all times, perimeter to the times, ducks which fly from from the perimeter middle of of the lake should be noted, so that they will duplicated when the open water water is counted. not be dupllicated r afts should be Depending upon the density density of birds, birds, rafts separated into units few separated units of tens tens or hundreds, hundreds, and in a few cases cases counting by thousands thousands will have to be done. It �is is here that that the ability ability to accurately accurately estimate estimate is imimportant; portant; only only training training will enable the observer observer to tell tell what aa hundred or a thousand birds birds appears appears like, like, not just just once uut but in every every 1.:ouceivable conceivable situation. situation. When When lakes lakes are are frozen, frozen, with with birds birds concentrated concentrated around one out oorr separating or two small small holes, the bloc!Iingblocking-out separating of of the raft raft into units must take into account account the very high density density of birds. birds. The counting of of Canada geese geese presents presents some some peculiar liar situations situations not encountered encountered in censusing censusing ducks. For For one one thing, geese are are much more likely likely to flush at the approach approach of of the plane, so so that that often the birds birds are are in flight by the time the observer observer is able to make the count. This This is not a particular particular disadvantage, disadvantage, because because geese will tend to stay stay together together while in the air. air. A good good pilot can circle circle the flying geese, geese, thus keeping them boxed in in and preventing preventing dispersal dispersal until the observer observer is satisfied satisfied with the count. The flight flight is blocked off into units units just just as as would would be done done if the birds birds were were on the wafer., water, but the observer observer roust must be constantly constantly aware aware that every every fly:ing flying bird bird casts casts aa shadow. shadow. To To the inexperienced inexperienced observer observer particularly, particularly, these these shadows shadows have the effect effect of increasing increasing the apapparent parent density of birds, birds, and and can result result in in aa gross gross overestimation. overestimation. Often, geese will be found found mixed in in aa raft of ducks. It It is then necessary necessary to purposely purposely dense raft flush flush the birds birds so so that the geese can can be counted. Periods Periods of unsettled unsettled weather weather have a severe severe effect effect upon upon the feeding feeding and resting resting habits of of geese. geese. Counts Counts during during such such periods periods should be avoided, not only only because cause of of the effect effect on on the birds birds but also also because because poor flying conditions will prevail. prevail. Generally, Generally, good good flying weather is also also good good goose counting weather. weather. Norweather mally, feeding feeding flights will will return return to the lakes by midso that aa count commencing commencing at about 11:00 11:00 morning, so AM and continuing until about 3:00 3:00 PM PM should. should offer AM best counting conditions. conditions. This This is is not a hard hard and the best fast fast rule, as geese may remain remain all day day in the feeding fields tl\e fields even even dm·ing during pel•iods periods of of mild weather. weather. U If the aerial census crew cannot find geese in the usual aerial census calIDot usual places places on on water water bodies, the only only recourse recourse is to search nearly search for them in the fields. fields. Once Once found, found, it it is nearly always necessary necessary to flush them to obtain an accurate accurate co1,1nt. count. A A system system of of data recording recording by the observer observer which makes it unnecessary unnecessary to shift shift the eyes eyes from from one subsubject ject to another another is highly highly recommended. recommended. If only one or two categories categories are are to be recorded, recorded, tally tally counters counters are are two perfectly perfectly actequate. adequate. Generally, however, information information of of too varied varied aa nature nature for the tally tally counters counters is desired; sired; for this reason reason we have gone gone over over entirely entirely to the voice recorder recorder (either (either disc disc or tap,~}. tape). Ours Ours are are battery battery operated, operated, although a conversion conversion unit is available which ectrical system which can be pll.1gged plugged into the el electrical system of the aircraft. aircraft. . of Finally, Finally, it should be pointed out out that the observer observer and pilot constitute constitute a team which, which, to be effective, effective, must operate vary operate as aa team. Flying altitudes altitudes will vary from less less than 100 100 to more than 300 300 fE:et, feet, according according to conditions, and it it is up up to the observer observer to indicate indicate his desires, desires, within reason. reason. Also, the observer observer should not be satisfied best possatisfied with anything anything less less than the best sible count, count, and and should should not not hesitate hesitate to have the pilot pilot make repeated repeated passes passes over the same same area area when necessary. necessary. A good good pilot and observer observer team, team, working together, d ing whereby together, can often often reacb reach an understan. understanding each knows that actual knows what the other other wishes to do, do, so that actual communication communication is held to a minimum. H. Rutherford Rutherford William H. Associate Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher September, September, 1965 1965 �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED PU J ,Jif ' BY THE THE 1\, .. COLORADO G GAME, FISH PARKS DEPi. DEPT. COLORADO M I Fl H and na PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Gan'le Leaflet Number umber 31 BROWSE RA RANGE TRANSECTS BROWSE GE TRA SECTS -PURPOSES AND GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR ESTABLISHMENT ESTABLISHMENT ~ PURPOSES AND FOR -1.l Present big game range analysis techniques techniques fall fall Present range analysis into two two categories, categories. One One phase involves the determindetermininto browse production and/ or utilization utilization on on an ation of browse basis. Most field personnel personnel have firsthand firsthand acannual basis. quaintance with this this job. Less Less well-known, but also also important, is the browse browse range condition trantranvery important, sect now now being used in making surveys surveys of of winter sect winter ranges. The Interagency Interagency ""Big Game Range Analysis" ranges. Big Game Analysis'' instructions are are suggested suggested reading reading for details details on both instructions subjects. supplementary recommenrecommensubjects. However, some supplementary are possible possible now now in view past e:-..11erience experience dations are view of of past and are presented herein. are presented herein. BROWSE PRODUCTION-UTILIZATION PRODUCTION-UTILIZATIONINVENTORY BROWSE INVENTORY Measured Transect.--Principal Transect.--Principal purposes of of makMeasured purposes ing prepre- and and post-use measurements of of marked marked samsampost-use measurements ples of of current current annual browse species ples browse growth on key species are determine indexes of growth, to find the actual actual are to determine percentages of of browse browse utilized, training percentages utilized, and to aid in training estimating use on on extensive extensive utilization utilization the eye in estimating checks. checks. lessening of emphasis emphasis Recently there there has been a lessening on of the measured measured transect transect in favor of of extensive extensive on use of reason for this trend trend has been the checks. The prime prime reason thought that surveys surveys would would be more meaningful where more area area of winter winter range in a game unit could be more examined. Suffice to say that if elimination elimination of of a measured transect is contemplated, contemplated, the decision decision measured transect after careful careful consideration consideration of should be made only after of all factors factors by appropriate appropriate representatives representatives of of the .all agencies involved. :agencies Present instructions instructions describe how measurements measurements Present describe how are to be conducted when annual growth is very short. are short. When growth is totally totally absent on on branches branches originally originally When years, another tagged, as it has been in some years, another workalternative to taking total total linear linear measurements measurements able alternative is the placement placement of of additional additional tags on branches branches of of plants nearby that do have sufficient sufficient available available annual annual :plants Records are are made of locations locations of of the supplesupplegrowth. Records mental plants, with separate separate computations of of utilizamental utilizasets of of data. The additional tions being made for both sets tags should be removed removed following following return return to normal normal tags subsequent years. years. annual growth in subsequent 11Contributed Federal Aid Project Project W-101W-101-R contributed from Federal R Keeping records records of originally tagged branches of the originally branches important, because best is very important, because they provide provide the best record of ""growth index" trends trends and measured measured utiliutilirecord of growth index" zation data. Extensive utilization Utilization Transect.--The Transect.--The purposes Extensive purposes of of extensive utilization utilization checks are are to provide a making extensive larger sample, sample, to obtain data on on additional additional species, larger species, information on browse browse utilization utilization on on and to provide information parts of key areas areas more more heavily heavily used during a parparts particular winter winter season. season. The latter latter ordinarily ordinarily is not ticular accomplished by measured measured transect transect data data when anianiaccomplished mals occupy occupy different different parts of a range because because of mals parts of abnormally mild or or severe severe winter winter weather weather conditions. abnormally As of of April, 1965, 1965, procedures reading the exprocedures for reading tensive transect altered to include picking tensive transect have been altered samples of key species. species. The up additional 50-plant 50-plant samples exact method has not been established for getting the established for sample. However, the mostworkablemeans most workable means additional sample. tranprobably involves running through a 100-plant lO0~plant transect first. first. Thus, the number of additional additional plants plants of sect species required required will be established established and the key species plants can be provided provided by extending the transect transect plants route sufficiently sufficiently to correct correct the inadequacy. route BIG GAME GAMEWINTER RANGESURVEY BIG WINTER RANGE SURVEY Transect. The condition Browse Range Condition Transect. transect, in contrast contrast to the measured extensive transect, measured and extensive utilization checks, checks, has not been in general general use by utilization field personnel. personnel. Instead, Instead, this procedure has been this procedure used mainly by cooperative cooperative interagency used interagency big game winter range survey survey crews. crews. It is an integral winter integral part part of more specialized vegetative more specialized vegetative type mapping and plant plant inventorying which has been done done largely largely on National i.nventorying Forest lesser extent, on BLM, state, state, Forest lands and, to a lesser and private private lands. Purposes and values values of of the condition transect, Purposes transect, not necessarily order of of importance, importance, are are as follows: necessarily in order 1. To obtain numerical numerical and adjective ratings by vegeadjective ratings 1. tive type for: a. Browse composition. composition. Browse density (percentage (percentage of of crown coverage). b. Browse coverage). c. Browse Browse vigor. vigor. d. Soil stability. stability. d, �2. 2. To obtain proper proper ranking of of secondary secondary species species in vegetative vegetative type designations. designations. 3. To determine determine indexes of of game game and livestock livestock use by season. season. 4. To provide recommendations recommendations for habitat improveimprove4. ment. ( 5. 5. To obtain trends trends of vegetation and and soil ratings ratings via subsequent subsequent rereadings. rereadings. 6. 6. To aid in establishing establishing average upper boundaries boundaries of of winter winter use (winter range). The transect point sample transect is aa meandering meandering 100100-point from which which browse composition is obtained directly. directly. Browse density density is determined determined by averaging averaging angle angle gage readings readings at each tenth sample sample point or, in the case of of oa.kbrush, oakbrush, by stereoscopic stereoscopic comparisons comparisons of air air photos with with stereo stereo orown crown density guides. A A shi·ub shrub plant plant at each sample point is assigned assigned an age and form classification. classification. These are are summarized summarized and and reresults applied to a scorecard scorecard to give give vigor ratings ratings by sults key key species. species. Also, the scorecard scorecard yields adjective ratings ratings from numerical numerical density and and composition figures ures as well as ratings ratings of of soil stability stability from the "ground cover index." oups, rregardless egardless index." All pellet pellet gr groups, of of age, are are counted counted at ten point intervals intervals and and yield groups-per-acre groups-per-acre indexes of of use by kind kind of animal and and season. B. B. D. D. Baker Assistant Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher November, November, 1965 1965 �0"L1tcloor Outdoor Facts Facts .. PUBLISt-lEO PUBLISHED BV BY Tl-IE THE COLORADO ISH and PARKS COLORADO GAME GAME, F FISH PARKS DEPT. DEPT. Game Game InformationLeaflet InformationLeaflet Numb Numberer32 32 AN M ERA R BCO RD E R AN AUTOMATIC AUTOMATIC CA CAMERA RECORDER 1 1 FOR D EN T IFICATION OF WILDLI FE FOR CENSUS CENSUS AND AND IIDENTIFICATION OF WILDLIFE The man hours required required to record record activities activities of wildlife often stifle ate information stifle collection collection of of accur accurate information needed for ch and management. Frequently for resear research Frequently the presence presence of of an observer observer biases biases the results. results. In many many cases, cases, these obstacles obstacles can be overcome overcome by using mechanical mechanical recording recording devices. devices. Such Such aa device device was successfully successfully employed to record record the frequency with which scaled scaled quail and other wildlife came came to drink drink water water supplied in gallinaceous gallinaceous guzzlers. guzzlers. This inforinformation was essential essential before before recommendations recommendations could concerning future installation installation of guzzlers. guzzlers. be made concerning In this this situation situation camera camera recording recording units units were set up at the guzzler guzzler entrances entrances to photographically photographically idenidenrecord wildlife and their their activity. activity. Each Each retify and record corder corder (Fig. 1) 1) consisted consisted of of a light source source and and photophotoelectric cell placed on on opposite sides sides of of the guzzler guzzler electric entrance eye entrance and aa solenoid-actuated solenoid-actuated 88 mm mm electricelectric-eye camera. system was was ope1·ated operated by a 1212-volt movie camer a. The system volt wetcell battery wet-cell battery which which was replaced replaced and recharged recharged spring-wound camera camera recorded recorded 600 600 each week. The spring-wound to 700 700 photo frames frames per per winding; winding; however, aa motor motor driven camera camera possibly possibly could record record aa full full film strip strip exceeding 2000 2000 frames frames without without interruption interruption or attenexceeding tion. An An impulse impulse counter counter attached to the solenoid provided aa complete record record of of activity activity which which somesomeprovided times times exceeded exceeded the capacity of of the camera. camera. Black and white roll roll film with an an A.S.A. A.S.A. index index of of 50 50 was used successfully successfully to record record all dawn dawn to dusk activity. activity. A A cordless electri electricc wall clock provided aa record record of of the cordless time each photo was taken. Within each custom-built custom-built unit aa delay-relay delay-relay device device automatically automatically shut down down the system, system, protecting protecting the battery, battery, when when the lightbeam was continuously broken broken for periods periods in in excess excess of aa minute. The The 88 mm photo photo frames frames were readily readily observed observed through a binocular binocular microscope microscope or a film film editing machine. They were were of of little little value other than to record record and identify wildlife. only one one of of many possibilities possibilities The above case is only electrically operated operated equipment can be conconwhere electrically veniently and economically economically used in the field field to record, record, identify, identify, or or photograph game. The following referreferences illustrate illustrate several several variations variations and uses uses of of meences chanical recording recording equipment, but many others others are are waiting to be developed, developed. 1 lContributed Federal Aid Aid Project Project WW-37-R contributed from Federal 37- R .. . ,; Fig.l.--Automatic camera camera recorder recorder unit in place at Fig.1,--Automatic entrance to gallinaceous gallinaceous guzzler. guzzler. entrance REFERENCES REFERENCES Abbott, H.G. H.G.,, and A. W. W. Coombs. 1964. 1964. A photoelecphotoelectric tric 35 35 mm camera camera device for recording recording animal animal behavior. behavior. ,J. J. Mammal. 45: 327-330. Cowardin, L. M. M.,, and J.E. J. E. Ashe. 1965. 1965. An An automatic automatic camera measuring waterfowl waterfowl use. J. camera d,evice device for measuring use. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 29: 636-640. Dodge, .. , and D. P DOdge, W. W. E E., P.. Snyder. 1960, 1960. An An automatic automatic camera wildlife activity. camera dHvice device for recording recording wildlife activity. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 24:340342. 24:340-342. Ozoga, . , and L. W. Gysel. 1965. Ozoga, J. JJ., L. W. 1965. A mechanical mechanical recorder measuring deer Wildl. recorder for for measuring deer activity. activity. J. Wild!. Mgmt. 29: 634. 29: 633633-634. Warren D. D. "Snyder Snyder Warren Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate December, December, 1965 1965 �Outdoor Facts 0 PUBLISHED PUBLIHE O BY V THE HE COLORADO GAME, Fl FISH CO ADO GAME. , and PARKS A DEPT. EPT. J Number 33 umber 33 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet FACTORS THAT THAT SHOULD SHOULD BE BE CO CONSIDERED DETERMINING FACTORS SIDE RED IN I DETERMINING TECHNIQUES FOR SEXI SEXING GA AND THE SOUTHER SOUTHERN WHITETECH · 1QUES FOR D AGING AGI G THE WHITETAILED PTARMIGA PTARMIGAN, . LAGOPUS LAGOPUS LEUCURUS LEUCURUS ALTIPETENS TAILED LTIPETENS l1 accurately determine determine the sex and The ability to accurately sex and birds harvest is a valuable game age of game bir ds in the harvest tool. A differential of birds birds by sexsexmanagement tool, differential kill of or age-class age-class can occur occur accorc:Ung according to bird behavior, or bird behavior, of hunting season, season, or hunting hunting methods methods,1 and may time of detrimental or beneficial beneficial to the population. The be detTimental percent of of young birds harvested deterpercent young birds harvested can help in detersuccess of of the breeding breeding season; season; and to mining the success some disclose the trend some extent, can disclose trend of of the population. Petrides {1942) (1942) examined small small samples samples of of willow willow Petrides (Lagopus lagopus) and and whit white-tailed (Lagopus leucurus) leucurus) e-tailed {Lagopus {Lagopus ptarmigan suggested that the shape and color ptarmigan and suggested color of the outer outer primaries primaries (9 (9 and 10) 10) could be used as an indicator of age in ptarmigan. ptarmigan. indicator of Weeden (1961) (1961) tested Weeden tested the validity of of using the of primaries primaries 9 and 10, 10, and and the coloration coloration of of shape of primaries 8, 9, and 10 10 in aging rock ptarmigan ptarmigan primaries 8, Bergerud, Peters Peters, and McGrath (Lagopus mutus). Bergerud, (1963) testetl tested the use of of shape, vigrnentation, pigmentation, and (1963) on primaries primaries 8, 9, and and 10 10 to determine determine age age;; and and gloss on the use of wing length, rectrix of tail tail pigment, wing rectrix length, and wing and rectri.x rectrix length combined in determining determining and the sex sex of of willow willow ptarmigan. ptarmigan. No references references have been found found where work has No on sexing or aging techniques been done on techniques for the southern white-tailed white-tailed ptarmigan. Preliminary field southern ptarmigan. Preliminary summer of of 1965 1965 has suggested suggested sevsevwork during the summer eral criteria criteria that should be examined for eral fo1· validity. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION present small small samples, samples, the ratio ratio of of ptarmipta.rmiFrom present gan killed killed during legal season season is 80 percent adult gan during the legal 80 percent males, 10 10 percent percent young young males, males, and 10 10 percent males, percent adult females. and young young females. (1965) states states that that rock and willow willow ptarmiptarmiWeeden (1965) are basically basically monogamous. Choate (1963) (1963)ascribes gan are ascribes similar breeding breeding habits habits to the whitewhite-tailed ptarmigan, similar tailedptarmigan, with dominant males males taking second mates. mates. Also, acac(1963),, it appears surplus of cording to Choate (1963) appears that a surplus males exists exists due to their females. males their longevity over females. Neither Weeden (1961) (1961) nor Bergerud, Bergerud, et al. a1. (1963), (1963), Neither found the shape of of primaries 10 an accurate accurate primaries 9 and 10 found determining age. Bergerud, Bergerud, et al. a1. (1963), (1963), technique in determining found pigment and gloss differences in these gloss differences these primarprimarfound reliable enough enough for use in the fall months months.. ies reliable Variation in pigmentation pigmentation in the tail rectrices and Variation tail rectrices coverts showed highest highest reliability reliability for sexing willow willow coverts ptarmigan (Bergerud, (Bergerud, et al, ale 1963). 1963). However, when ptarmigan used in combination with wing or rectrix rectrix length, all birds could be accurately accurately sexed. birds Although all visual visual and mechanical mechanical measurements measurements Although presently taken will be continued, the following facfacpresently tors appear to offer the best tors appear best possibilities possibilities for aging and sexing ptarmigan. ptarmigan. The gloss gloss test test as described described by and Bergerud, et ale (1963) has not been tried Bergerud, al. (1963) tried and will be sexing added to the study. At this time, time, all work on se. x ing their swnsumand aging has been limited limited to ptarmigan ptarmigan in their mer plumage. mer METHODS METHODS Ptarmigan were live-trapped live-trapped throughout the sumPtarmigan mer months. Check stations stations were operated operated during the mer ptarmigan hunting season. season. All birds ptarmigan birds handled, live or were measured measured visually visually or mechanically mechanically on on dead, were 10 ttoo 15 15 factors on whether from 10 factors depending on whether the bird bird was live or dead. Age Age and sex of of live birds estibirds were estitheir appearance appearance and behavior and all mated from theh· behavior and birds banded for later later verification. verification. Bursa Bursa measuremeasurebirds and gonad gonad examination examination was made on on all dead ments and birds. birds. 11Contributed Federal Aid Project Project W-37W-37-R Contributed from Federal R CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS Aging From From July to September, September, the general general body Aging size and weight of young size young birds birds differentiate differentiate young young young male from adult. At At what age in months the young male equals the adult female in body body growth is not yet known. known. Feathers on the abdomen of of young young birds are graygrayFeathers birds are when compared compared to the white feathers feathers on on adult ish when birds. birds. Primaries 9 and and 10, 10, when when numbered from the Primaries proximal to the distal, distal, may remain remain brown-speckled proximal brown-speckled �through the first first year, year, being replaced replaced by white feathers during post-nuptial molt. ers du.ring the post-nuptial first set set of of primaries and 10 10 may be more The first primaries 9 and of adult birds, this has proven pointed than those of birds, but this to be difficult to measure measure objectively. of and depth of bursa bursa may be usable The presence presence of separate ptarmigan young, yearling, yearling, and and older to separate ptarmigan into young, older age classes. classes. season. Measurements Measurements may may have to be changed changed to the season, rectrix as descrjbed described by Bergerud, Bergerud, et al. a!. (1963). (1963). outer rectrix Length of of wing wing, length of of middle toenail, and length t oenail , and of bill may be usable measurements are first first of measurements if birds birds are placed in young young and mature mature age groups. Sexing Coloration Coloration a.ud and vermicula.tion vermiculation of Sexing of the feathers on the back, rump, and sides sides of of ptarmigan appear ers on ptarmigan appear different in the adult male male and female. Female Female to be different feathers appear appear more barred with a high high intersperintersperfeathers barred ,villi of black feathers feathers on on the back and rump. Male sion of feathers are are vermiculate vermiculate with only a few few black feathfeathers ers on ers on the back. The lower breast, abdomen, and and under-tail The breast, abdomen, under-tail covert covert feathers of remain white in the summer summer feathers of the male remain only the abdomen is white plumage of the male while only female.. in the female rectrices are are ligllt light brown and and vermiculate vermiculate in The rectrices the male while those of the female are are barred barred and darker. darker. central rectrices rectrices appears appears longer longer The length of the central However,, a good good deal of on the male than the female. female. However error encountered in this this measurement measurement as error has been encountered these feathers feathers are these are undergoing molt.during molt during the hunting Bergerud, A. T., S. S. S. Peters, Peters, and R. R. McGrath. 1963. 1963. Bergerud A. Determining and age of of willow willow ptarmigan ptarmigan in Determining sex and Newfoundland. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Mgmt. 27 27(4): 700-711. (4): 700-711. Newfoundland, J, S. 1963. 1963. Habitat and and population dynamics Choate, T. S. of white white-tailed Montana. J. Wild!. of - tailed ptarmigan ptarmigan in Montana. Mgmt. 27(4): 27(4): 684684-699. Mgmt. 699. Petrides, G. G. A. A. 1942. 1942. Age Petrides, Age determination determination in American American Trans. N. N. Amer. Conf. gallinaceous birds. birds, Trans. Amer, Wildl. Conf. 7:308-328. 7:308-328. Weeden, R. R. B. 1961. 1961. Outer primaries primaries ad indicators indicators Weeden of age among among rock -ptarmigan. ptarmigan. J, J. Wild!. of Wildl. Mgmt. 25(3): 337-339. 337-339. 25(3): ____ 1965. Grouse and ptarmigan Alaska. Dept. - - ·. 1965. ptarmigan in Alaska.. of Fish 110 p. Fi$h and Game. 110 LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE Glenn E E.. Rogers Glenn Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant December, 1965 1965 December, �Outdoor Facts OL tdOOI Fact.s PUBLISHED PUBLISHED B:V BY TME THE COLORADO GAME, FISH .ind and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO l • I· Number34 Number 34 Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet SEX UN D ER A SEX AND AND AGE AGE RATIOS RATIOS OF OF DEER DEER HARVESTED HARVESTED UNDER A HUNT ERS-CHOICE, MULTIPLE -LICENSE HUNTING HUNTERS-CHOICE, MULTIPLE-LICENSE HUNTING SEASON SEASON Does the average hunter hunter tend to be selective selective in his kill kill of deer deer by sex and and age class? class? Does a liberal liberal or restrictive restrictive hunting season season influence selectivity selectivity in any way? way? Does the kill of of yearling yearling males as reported reported by antler antler points on on the hunter report report card card represent represent the total total yearling yearling harvest harvest for both sexes? sexes? These are are aa few few of the many many questions asked of of aa game game manager. manager. A proposed five-year five-year study was begun begun in 1954 1954 to obobtain some answers, answers, but for for various various reasons reasons the study was discontinued after aa single year' year'ss operation. Since 194-9 1949 (Hay, (Hay, Hunter, and Robbins, RObbins, 1961), 1961), the percent percent of of yearling yearling males in the kill kill bas has been used for determining determining the reproductive reproductive status status of of Colorado's Colorado's deer deer herds. herds. Swank Swank (1958), (1958), in his work in the Kaibab Kaibab deer herd in Arizona, sampled the female harvest harvest to determine determine the reproductive reproductive rate. rate. Andersen (Mosby, (Mosby, class, by 1960) 1960) recorded recorded the kill kill (by (by ageage-class, by percent percent kill level level and and by by sex) of an entire entire roe deer deer herd in Denmark. Several Several terms terms should should be defined. A hunters-choice hunters-choice deer deer season season allowed allowed aa single deer of of any any age or sex sex to be legally killed on aa license. license. In 1954, 1954, aa multiple license season season allowed allowed each hunter to buy buy as many many license licenses licenses as his time time and his money money permitted. permitted. Each multiple license license cost the same as an original, original, $40.00 $40.00 multiple for aa nonresident and $7. 50 for aa resident. non-resident $7.50 resident. PROCEDURES PROCEDURES A A checking station station was set up at at the mouth mouth of of the Fork of of Piceance Piceance Creek Creek and andwas Dry Fork was operated aroundthe-clock season. the- clock starting starting two two days before the hunting huntingseason. Information sheets sheets were distributed distributed to hunters hunters enterentering the area, area, which which explained the study and and requested requested cooperation cooperation to leave the head attached to the carcass carcass for for. aging aging purposes purposes and evidence of sex. The sex of of all deer brought through the station station was determined determined by visual visual examination. All animals were were aged by by examining tooth development and and wear as later later described described by by Robinette, Jones, Rogers, Rogers, and Gashwiler (1957). (1957). Except for specific specific studies studies (Rogers, 1953; 1953; Grieb, 1955), 1955), deer deer harvest harvest data in Colorado are are postulated postulated from hunter hunter report report cards cards attached to each big game license. license. Hunters are are required required to report report place and and date 0f of kill, sex of of animal killed, killed, and and the number of of antler antler points for right and left sides sides of of each male animal. However, report cards However, the hunterhunter-report cards returned returned each year year have varied varied from 25 25 to 75 75 percent. percent. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION For aa number number of of years years Colorado has used the frefrequency quency of of the the several several age classes classes of of deer killed as an an index index to the surviving surviving population. This can only only be true true if if several several factors factors are are present: present: 1) 1) the kill is is an adequate sample of of the herd; 2) 2) the hunter is nonnonselective selective in his harvest; harvest; 3) 3) all age and sex sex classes classes have an equal vulnerability vulnerability to the hunter; 4) 4) there there is no no special special mortality mortality in certain certain age classes; classes; and and 5) 5) aa large large enough enough area area is sampled that all sex and and age age classes classes are present present in representative representative proportions. proportions. Al)derson Anderson (Mosby, (MOSby, 1960) 1960) found found that aa 25 25 percent percent random . . did not exploit random kill of a roe deer herd" herd" .••• separate age classes classes in in proportion proportion to their their actual the separate occurrence occurrence in the total total population." population." Kill of of the fawn fawn class class was less less than the yearling yearling class; class; kill in the two-year two-year class. class was excessive; excessive; kill in the the four-year four-year class class was very scarce; scarce; kill in the fivefive-,, sixsix-,, and and eight-year classes classes exceeded the fourfour-year class; and and eight-year year class; no no animals animals over eight years years of of age were killed. In analyzing the kill by sex, Andersen Andersen found found that males males of of all ages were more vulnerable to hunting hunting than females. females. In spite of of the high exploitation of of young young males males and the superior superior numbers of of females females in in the females continued less less vulnerable vulnerable to the hunter herd, females throughout their their life span. Swank Swank (1958), (1958), in reporting reporting five years' years' data on the percent percent of of female deer deer killed by age class class in in the North Kaibab Kaibab area area of of Arizona, shows shows a consistently consistently smaller percent percent of of the twotwo-year class than aa life smaller year class curve would would suggest. Swank Swank (1958) (1958) suggests suggests that the variations in yearling yearling removal removal are are aa result result of of poor variations reproduction. reproduction. From From aa limited limited area, area, the Dry Fork Fork of of Piceance Piceance Creek, aa total of of 486 486 deer deer were checked. Hunters moving up and down down the Dry Fork, which limited limited their their hunting hunting to the lower part part of the drainage, drainage, took 318 318 deer; while hunters ilizing the higher elevations, hunters ut utilizing elevations, �1.--Kill of deer class through Table 1.--Kill deer by sex and age class the Little Little Hills Hills checking station station Age in Years Years 4-1/3 3 't-1/3 '1_1/3 4-1/ 1/3 11-1/32-1/33-1/3 - Sample 1/3 2-1/ 3 3-1/ 3 1/3 6-1/3 61/3 Over Size Males 13.7 40.5 10.5 15.8 14. Males 13.7 14.'1 4. 8 190 190 'I 4.8 Females 16.5 16.5 27,4 27.4 Females 164 9.8 18.9 20.7 164 6.7 14.90 34.5 Both 12.1 354 14.90 8.8 13.0 16.7 12.1 354 - 2.--Comparison between estimated estimated kill of deer deer Table 2.--Comparison by sex sex and age classes classes from the check stastahunter-report cards tion and hunterreport cards 1-1/33 3-1/3 3-1/3 55-1/3 l-1/ 1/3 and and Unknown 1/3 2-1/3 2-1/3 4-1/3 4-1/3 Over Unknown Cards Report Cards 7.24 37.82 37.82 20.65 20.65 3L13 31.13 3.16 Check Station 14.90 14. 90 39.64 39.64. 19.69 18.65 7.12 Table 3.--Comparison 3.--Comparison of percent percent ki.11 kill by sex sexfor for check station sample sample and from report report station Sample Does Bucks Size Check Station 53.7 53.7 46.3 463 463 Cards 40,4 Report Cards 40.4 59.6 59.6 5,826 5,826 departing past past the Dry Fork Fork junction, harand yet departing harvested 168 deer. deer. The total deer killed vest ed 168 total number of deer within the Dry Fork Fork drainage drainage and not contacted contacted by by the is unknown. This Dry Fork. Fork drainage drainage checking station statron is unknown. Tbis is only a small small portion larger game manageportion of the larger (Piceance), which sustained sustained a total total kill kill ment unit 22 22 (Piceance), 5,826 deer. deer. of 5,826 RESULTS AND AND CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS RESULTS In the check station station sam1Jle, sample, the percent percent kill of of deer exceeded that of females females in the one-, two-, male deer twothree-year classes. The percent of feyear age classes. percent kill of and threemales exceeded males males in the fawn and the two two older older males 1). The smallest smallest kill for both sexes sexes age groups (Table 1). by age-class age-class occurred occurred in the two-year two-year age class class exceeding only seven-year exceeding only the percent percent kill within the seven-year males. and older older group of of males. In comparfng compari.ng tbe the kill by age class class from the Piceance station and hunter-report hunter-report cards, cards, the Piceance check station main variation occurs in the fawn fawn and five-year variation occurs a.ad the five-year plus class class (Table 2). This variation variation may be due to the small size size of of the check station sample, but more more small station sample, attributed to errors errors arising arising when comlikely can be attributed puting age by antler antler points (Hunter, 1947) and and in the (Hllllter, 1947) of many hunters falsify fawn kills. kills. tendency of hunters to falsify sample size size (354) animals aged at the The sample (354) for animals station was 6,07 6.07 ,Percent percent of the total total unit kill checking station from report report ca.rd card estimates. estimates. From station figures (Table 1), 1), harvest From the check st ation figures harvest comprises 27.4 percent doe of yearling yearling does comprises percent of of the ctoe kill compared compared to a 40. 40.5 yearling bucks~ 5 percent percent for yearling bucks. harvest The combined yearling yearling h:ir est from fr om check sstation tatio1~ compared to 45.06 percent estidata is 34.4 percent percent compared percent estiby Hunter (1954). (1954). mated PY percent of of yearling deer killed as computed yearling deer The percent from hunter-report hunter-report cards cards may be useful in estimating estimating reproductive years reproductive trend. trend. However, many additional years would be necessary before changes less less than of study would necessary before 10 percent percent could be assigned assigned to reproductive reproductive success success 10 failure rather or failure rather than changes in hunting pressures pressures or seasons. seasons. A similar discrepancy discrepancy is apparent apparent (Table 3) 3) in the A similar comparison of of the percent percent kill of of bucks, bucks, does, and comparison fawns by the two two checks. The hunter killing a buck hunter killing prouder and more report his kill than may be prouder more apt to report who kills Hunters who who kill buck fawns the one who kills a doe. Hunters report their their kill as spike may have a tendency to report bucks. A breakdown of of the sex sex ratios ratios from hunterhunterreport cards for the entire entire management unit showed report cards 59.6 percent percent bucks and 40.4 percent percent does. Check station figures figures sampling sampling only part station part of the unit showed 53.7 percent bucks and 46.3 percent percent does. As an indi53. 7 percent cator of variation variation in sample sample, does from the lower cator part drainage comprised 47.55-percent percent part of the Dry Fork Fork drainage comprised 47. harvest compared compared to 36.7 of the harvest 36. 7 percent percent from the elevations. These figut-es figures may indicate indicate that higher elevations. . the lower Dry Fork Fork drainage drainage does pot not contain a representative sample sample of of the total representative total unit population. REFERENCES REFERENCES Grieb, J. R. 1955. A A comparison comparison of methods for for estiestiR. 1955. mating the annual kill of big game in Colorado. Game and Fish Fish Dept., mimeo. 45 45 p. Colo. Game Hay, K. K. G., G. G. N. and L. Robbins. 1961. 1961. Big N. Hunter and Hay, 1949-1958. Tech. game management in Colorado 1949-1958. Bull. No. No.8, Game and Fish Fish Dept. 112 112 p. 8, Colo. Game G. N. 1947. Physical Physical characteristics characteristics ofColoofColoHunter, G. N. 1947. rado mule deer deer in relation relation to their class. their age class. Game and and Fish Dept. 38 p. Colo. Game 1954. Deer-elk-bear season in Colorado Colorado .• 1954. Deer- elk- bear season 1948-1953. Colo. Game and Fish Fish Dept. 64 64 p. 1948-1953, Mosby, H. H. S. S. 1960. 1960. Manual Manual of game investigational investigational Mosby, techniques. techniques. The Wildl. Society. Robinette, W. A. Jones, Jones, G. G. E. Rogers Rogers, and J. S. W. L., D. D. A. J. S. Gashwiler. 1957, 1957. Notes on on tooth development and and Gashwiler. wear Rocky Mountain mule deer. deer. J. Wildl. wear for Rocky Mgmt. 21(2): 21 (2): 134-153. Rogers, G. G. E. 1953. 1953. Function and operation operation of big Rogers, game check stations stations in Colorado. J. Wild. Wild. Mgmt. 17(3): 256-267. 17(3): Swank, W. G. 1958. 1958. The mule deer deer in Ari. Arizona Swank, W. G. z ona chaparral. Ariz. Ariz. Game and Fish Fish Dept. Wildl. Bull. No. arral. No. 109 p. 3, 109 Glenn E E.. Rogers Glenn Rogers Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant December, 1965 December, 1965 �() Fae Outdoor Facts Ou ~. PUBLISHE'D THE PUBLISHED EV BY THE .. rr)l,:i~ DC GI' Mr. c1s1 • d PARKS COLORADO GAME, FISHI and PARKS DEPT DEPT. Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet Nurnber 35 Number 35 PREPARATION OF A PREPARATION A POTTING POTTING MEDIUM MEDIUM FOR FOR PLANTS PLANTS 1 1 The knowledge knowledge and and talents talents of of the professional professional nurseryman seryman have, in recent recent years, years, become much much in demand mand in the art art of wildlife management. In In many cases, cases, intensive intensive habitat development programs programs are are the 1cey key to converting land land from mediocre mediocre to good good or excellent excellent wildlife production. Such Such development usually calls calls for planting various various species species of trees trees and and slu-ubs shrubs to fw·nish furnish wildlife food food and and cover. cover. The Colorado Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Department Department has done done aa great great deal deal of growing and planting of trees trees and and shrubs shrubs in the past, past, and is is still still doing doing it on aa limited limited scale. scale. Experience Experience thus gained in the techniques techniques of raising raising pot-grown pot-grown plants plants can, of of course, course, be app1ied applied to plants plants grown grown for whatever whatever purpose. This leaflet leaflet is intended primarily primarily for for the dissemination dissemination of of information information on on raising grown trees raising potpot-grown trees and and shrubs shrubs for for wildlife habitat plantings. It is safe to say say that potting mixhtres, mixtures, for the growing of of plants in containers, containers, are are almost always discussed discussed when when nurserymen nurserymen meet. This is especially especially true true at at the present present time, time, as pot-gi·own pot-grown plants have important part part of of the nursery nursery busibusibecome a very important ness. ness. Potting Potting mixtures, mixtures, along with proper proper care, care, water water and fertilizers, fertilizers, can be significant significant factors factors in the vigor and and and size size of of plants. Fortunately, anyone anyone who who may be contemplating the Fortunately, gr owing of trees growing trees and and shrubs shrubs or any any of of the well-known plants in containers, containers, need not not be discouraged. discouraged. Plants Plants are adaptable adaptable and and forgiving within reasonable reasonable limits. limits. The ultimate ultimate in growth normally would would not not be be necessary. Well developed, healthy plants of average average size size sary. are are much better better for planting in in the field. Keeping the above above in mind, mind, it it will be fow1d found that any Keeping soil capable of of growing common farm farm crops crops will do passably well, just just as it comes from from the field. field. Most passably soils, soils, however, are are "improved" "improved" in order order to promote promote better plant gi·owth growth and, and, in some cases, cases, to secure secure aa better lighter lighter mixture to facilitate facilitate handling handling and and hauling. are accomplished accomplished by adding varivariThese soil changes are ous organic and inorganic inorganic materials materials and and fertilizers. fertilizers. It would would be impractical impractical to suggest specific specific formulas, formulas, soils are are very diverse. diverse. Requirements Requirements of plant as soils species, costs, costs, and desired desired results results will also vary. species, 11Contribution Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-108-D contribution from Federal A partial partial list list of of soil soil conditioners conditioners withi with some notes notes on on their their use should should be aa helpful guide, however, for the novice who Turface,n who contemplates contemplates potting plants. plants. ""Turface," vermiculite inorganic vermiculite and and perlite perlite are are commonly us,ed used inorganic materials. materials. They They are are very good good for formulating formulating a lightweight medium and light-weight and one one that will re.adily readily absorb absorb and retain retain moistu1·e. moisture. Sand Sand is less less expensive expensive and is very good good to mix with heavy soils soils if if weight is is not undesirable. undesirable. Organic Organic soil additives are endless. endless. Peat, Peat, corn corn cobs, corn stalks, stalks, leaves, leaves, garden waste, bean straw, straw, etc.. general etc., are are not not only only soil soil conditioners conditioners but adld add to general fertility fertility as as they decompose. The decomposition decomposition procprocess uses much of the available nitrogen nitrogen in the soil soil and and aa yellow condition condition may occur occur in plants. plants. This condition can be corrected corrected by using using commercial commercial nitrate nitrate fertilizer fertilizer in limited limited amounts. amounts. Preparation Preparation of the mixture ture aa year year in advance advance with nitrates nitrates added to hasten hasten decomposition is aa better better practice, practice, which eliminates eliminates the necessity necessity of of corrective corrective measures measures after after potting. Using this process, germinated process, weed seeds seeds are are also also germinated and plants are and can be destroyed destroyed before the desired desired plants are containers. placed in the containers. The use of of fertilizers fertilizers in potting mixtures mixtures should be done with caution. caution. Three Three ounces of of commercial commercial fertilizer fertilizer per per cubic yard would would be comparable comparable to a application of of three three hundred pounds per per acre. acre. field application Any manure, produced by livestock, livestock, can be added to Any potting mixtures. mixtures. It should, however, be well rotted rotted and used and quite dry to facilitate facilitate mLXing. mixing. The The amount used could range from less less than two pounds pounds per yard of per yard poultry droppings to ten or more pounds of strawy strawy cattle cattle manure. This organic material material improves improves soil soil texture as it it fertilizes. fertilizes. texture A good, good, light weight mixture mixture could be made of one A part part "Turface" "Turface" or vermiculite vermiculite and and two parts parts of sandy loam soil, by volume. A A further further improvement improvement could very well be five large large scoops scoops of shredded shredded bean straw straw and and three three ounces of of 16-20-0 16-20-0 commercial commercial fertilizer fertilizer added to each yard of of the basic basic mixture. mixture. Shredding or or chopping and mixing is aa final final process process which will chopping prepare the potting material material in in the b1est best possible possible prepare manner. Lawrence A. Webster Lawrence Webster Supervising Groundsman Groundsman Supervising January, January, 19fi6 1966 �Facts Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE I[ COLORADO : GAME, PARKS DEPT. : : : ~ FISH and PARKS DEPT , [ COLORADO Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet if J ',' ~ Number umber 36 CAPTURING G BIG BIG GAME ANIMALS BY THE THE USE USE OF OF DRU DRUGS CAPTURI GAME ANIMALS BY GS 11 Photo by R. N. Denney Since man first first decided that animals animals could be useusealive, he has been been devising devising methods of live ful to him alive, capture. Sometimes Sometimes animals animals will not enter enter traps, capture. traps, however, and must must be caught another another way. Recently Recently however, principle of the primitive primitive poison dart dart and blowgun the principle has been modified to capture capture animals. animals. In the fall fall of 1954 when trapping trapping failed failed to collect collect any deer, Jack A. 1954 deer, Jack 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R. contribution from Crockford refined refined the South American American Indian's Crockford Indian's poison dart to deliver deliver an immobilizing immobilizing dose of drug dart drug into an animal. This now been been perfected perfected until until the animal. This method has now dart projectile syringe syringe with automatic injection dart is a projectile automatic injection air rifle and the blowgun is a modern modern air rifle or powder gun. PROJECTOR first gun gun was a monstrous The first monstrous cross cross between a bazooka and a scuba scuba diver's diver's arbalest arbalest powered bazooka powered by strips of innertube innertube (Lord 1958). 1958). This machine strips machine was too unreliable step was to modify unreliable and unwieldy. The next step �{.300" c.300" [;:-::-::~ (t:._ ___J [ - C carbon bit £:4"4 " Low Lowcor bondrill drill bit I ltI6~/:~ i J~,:16 I 5ta 3 5ts 3 13/16-----J~6. 131t6___j:'1!6• - of the original dart used by Crockford Crockford et al. (1957). Fig. 1. Diagram Diagram of original dart (1957). a Crossman Crossman air air gun gun by substituting substituting a .30 caliber, caliber, of ystem. of introducing introducing the compound into the animal's animal's ssystem. seamless, tubular-steel tubular-steel barrel barrel to accommodate accommodate the Even by improving seamless, release improving the paste paste causing causing it to release drug-loaded dart. dart. Later Later the barrel drug-loaded barrel was rifled rilled for more stream, immobilization more rapidly rapidly into the blood stream, immobilization greater accuracy. accuracy. Today the CO2 C02 pistol standgreater pistol is the standr emained slow and uncertain. uncertain. remained ard projector projector for short short ranges, ranges, the COz CO2 rifle rifle is ard The present present projectile projectile was developed developed through the standard for intermediate intermediate ranges ranges, , and and a powder gun gun cooperation standard cooperation of Chemical of Harold Harold C. Palmer Palmer of of Palmer Palmer Chemical ranges or on on thj_ck-skinned thick-skinned animals. animals. is used at long ranges and Equipment Georgia, and Equipment Company, Douglasville, Douglasville, Georgia, Other means means of projection are blowguns, longbows, holder Other projection are holder of patent on technique. It of the patent on the CAP-CHUR technique. and crossbows. and crossbows. projectile syringe was a projectile syringe (Fig. 2) 2) with automatic automatic ininjection. original injection injection mechanism mechanism was an jection. The original PROJECTILE inertia trigger trigger which freed freed an effervescent inertia effervescent tablet tablet into activator fluid at firing. firing. A gas was thus formed formed vehicle for the drug was initially initially a dart dart made an activator The vehicle creating pressure pressure behind the rubber rubber plunger-. plunger. This from drill bit (Fig. 1). 1). A measured measured amount of the creating from a drill unreliable. It was replaced replaced by a drug in paste of the method was often unreliable. paste form was molded onto the shank of small brass brass capsule, capsule, called called a CAP-CHUR Charge, Charge, dart (Crockford (Crockford et al al.. 1957). 1957). This was a slow means means small dart o0 -Ring -Ring Seals Seals CAP-CHUR Charge CAP - CHUR Charge Nose . Nose PlugPlug Toil Piece Rubber Plunger Rubber Plunger Drug Compartment 2. Diagram of CAP-CHUR syringe syringe with CAP- CHUR injection. Fig. 2. Diagram of CHUR Charge injection. �containing a light powder charge charge which fired fired upon containing impact, injecting injecting the drug. Archers impact, Archers have used the arrow for injection injection as well as the CAPweight of the arrow CHUR Charge. At present, CHUR Charge. At present work is being done to perfect disposable plastic plastic projectile. projectile. perfect a disposable Thiopental is a relatively relatively rapid rapid and short-lasting Thiopental short- lasting anesthetic. Pentobarbital Pentobarbital is slower slower acting acting and of anesthetic. longer duration. duration. Certain Certain side side effects longer effects as well as relarelatively injection make tively slow reaction reaction to intramuscular intramuscular injection these unsatisfactory ior for most field immobilization. these unsatisfactory most field immobilization. DRUGS DRUGS Phencyclidine hydrochloride, Sernylan, is being Phencyclicline hydrochloride, Sernylan, being experimentally at present. present. Reportedly Reportedly it immoimmoused experimentally bilizes by inhibiting inhibiting the central central nervous nervous sites bilizes sites that that control sensory sensory perception (Peterson 1965) 1965).. This control perception (Peterson This drug drug real promise, margin of safety safety shows real promise having a wide margin relatively rapid brief immobilizing immobilizing action. action. and relatively rapid and brief Flaxedil, a synthetic synthetic curare curare, was the first first drug drug Flaxedil, used in remote remote capture capture (Hall et al, al. 1953). 1953). After catchused After catchdeer in 1955 1955 with Flaxedil, Crockford ing his first first deer Flaxedil Cr ockford strychnine salts salts (Crockabandoned this this drug for the strychnine ford et al. 1957). 1957). Though Though 21 animals were 21 animals were captured captured compounds,, too many others others died. Followwith these these compounds Followthis experiment, experiment, he soHcited solicited the help of Dr. Frank Frank ing this A. Medicine; Dr. James James A. Hayes, College of Veterinary Veterinary Medicine; H. Jenkins, Dr. Seldon D. H. Jenkins, College College of Forestry; Forestry; and Dr. D. Feurt, Pharmacology of the University Feurt; College of Pharmacology University of Georgia more suitable suitable drug. These These men Georgia to find a more screened more than 100 100 compounds before before they setsetscreened more tled upon nicotine nicotine salicylate salicylate as the most suitable tled upon suitable (Crockford et al. 1957). 1957). Nicotine alkaloids alkaloids are now (Crockford are now used in preference preference to the salicylate salicylate compound (Denney (Denney used 1964). 1964). Several drugs have been used in remote remote capture capture Sever al drugs research ttoo find a more perfect immobilizer and research more perfect immobilizer continues. These These drugs drugs fall into two broad categories, continues. broad categories, central nervous nervous ssystem depressants and peripheral central ystem depressants peripheral nerve inhibitors. inhibitors. Of Of the central system dedenerve central nervous nervous system pressants, thiopental ssodium pentobarbitol sodisodipressants, thiopental odium and pentobarbitol um, veterinary anesthetics, anesthetics, ha-ve have been been tried. um common veterinary tried. Propiopromazine; the tranquilizer, Tranvet; and Propiopromazine; tranquilizer, Tranvet; insulin been tried experimentally- on fur fur seals insulin have been tried experimentallyseals (Peterson 1965). 1965). The former, former, if given in asufficiently (Peterson a sufficiently large dose, dose, has produced produced sedation sedation and loss loss ot of muscle large muscle coordination. The delay between coordination. between injection injection and effect effect lasts about 16 15 minutes minutes and the effects effects continue as lasts long as 24 hours. Large doses doses of the latter take slow 1011g hours. Large latter take cause uncontrollable uncontrollable coma. effect or cause peripheral nerve nerve inhibitors inhibitors block or otherwise The peripheral or otherwise inactivate the passage passage of nerve nerve impulses impulses to muscle muscle inactivate fibers. Gallamine triethiodide, Flaxedil, has a relarelafibers. Gallamine triethiodide, Flaxedil, tively margin of safety safety and short short period period of imtively wide margin immobilization. this drug drug must must be used used with an mobilization. Since this antidote to prevent prevent mortality, preferred antidote m,ortality, it is not preferred today. It is is rrapidly urine (Lumb 1963), 1963). apidly excreted excreted in the urine Alkaloidal nicotine has a relatively relatively narrow margin narrow margin Alkaloidal nicotine safety and the reaction reaction and recovery recovery times of safety times are are Dosage Drug Chemical Chemical Name ame Deer Deer mg/lb m g/ lb Nicotine ·tcotine alkaloid alkaloid 3-4 (whitetail) Sucostrin Sucostrin (Squibb) (Squibb) Anectine Anectine (Burroughs (Burrougbs Wellcome) Wellcome) Succinylcholine uccinylcholine chloride chlori de Sernylan Sernylan (Parke-Davis) (ParkeDavis) Phencyclidine P)lencyclidine hydrochloride hydrochloride Brand Brand Name CAP-CHUR-SOL CAP.CHUR-SOL (Palmer) (Palmer) Elk Elk mg/head mg/head Bear Bear mg/lb mg/lb 0.10-0.14 0.10-0. 14 (mule) 20-25 0.17-0.20 0.17-0.20 0.75-1.50 0. 75-1 , 50 500 500 . .. Table !.--Immobilizing 1.--Immobilizing doses doses of of drugs drugs for some some common Colorado Colorado big game animals animals (Denney (Denney 1964, 1964, Boyd Table 1965). and Denney 1965). �fairly short. short. However, dangerous to the handler handler fairly However it is dangerous even if spilled spilled on the skin skin and should be used with extreme care. care. Nicotine is completely completely excreted excreted from extreme from system in about 16 16 hours hours (Lumb 1963). 1963). the system Succinylcholine chloride, chloride, sold under under various trade Succinylcholine various trade names, has been widely used used on on elk in Colorado. names, Colorado. It has a medium margj_n margin of safety relatively short short safety and a relatively reaction time immobilization period. period. Ruminants reaction time and immobilization Ruminants are about five times times as susceptible susceptible to it as humans. are humans, Succinylcholine broken down ctown by the natural Succinylcholine is readily readily broken natural body enzyme, enzyme, cholinestrase, cholinestrase, and animals animals that die of of body overdose a:..-e are edible, edible. an overdose Immobilizing dosages dosages of of three drugs Immobilizing three of the above drugs animals are are given for some common Colorado game animals in Table 1. Denney, R. N. 1964. CAP-CHURnotes. CAP-CHURnotes. Colorado Colorado Dept. Denney N. 1964. Game,, Fish Fish and Parks. Parks. 3 p. Mimeographed Mimeographed paper. Game paper. H. Baker, Baker, and J.E. J. E. Aub, Aub. Hall, T. C., E. V. V. Taft, W. W. H. 1953. A preliminary preliminary report use of Flaxedil 1953. report on the use Flaxedil to produce produce paralysis deer paralysis in the white-tailed white-tailed deer borealis). . .J. J. Wild!. (Odocoileus virginianus virginianus borealis) Wildl. Mgmt. 17(4):516-520. 17(4) :516-520. 1958. Tile The historical historical development development of of an inLord. W. W. 1958. strument for live capture capture of of animals. animals. Southeast Southeast strument Vet. 9:147-148, 155. 155. W. V. 1963. Small Small animal animal anesthesia. anesthesia. Lee and V. 1963. Lumb, W. Febiger, Philadelphia. Philadelphia. 420 Febiger, 420 pp. Peterson, R. S S.. 1965. 1965. Drugs for handling fur seals. seals. Peterson, J. Wild!. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(4):688-693. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED 1965.Experimental trapBoyd, R. R. J. and R. N. Denney. 1965. Experimental trapping and marking marking techniques. techniques. Colo. Game Res. Rep., July:12-22. July:12-22. Crockford, J.H.Jenkins, S.D. Crockford, J. A., F. A. A. Hayes, J. H. Jenkins and S. D. Feurt. 1957. 1957. Nicotine salicylate capturing deer. deer. Feurt. salicylate for capturing J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 21(2):213-220. J. 1958. An An -__- ._, - , - -- - , _ _ _ . , and _ ___ •, 1958. automatic projectile syringe. Vet. Med. S3(2): 53(2): automatic projectile type syringe. 115-119. 115-119. David F. Gordon Wildlife Researcher Candidate Candidate Wildlile Researcher April, 1966 April, 1966 �OL1tcl oo ~. Facts Outdoor Facts J ,Jff' PUSLl5HED PUBLISHED BV BY THE THE ~: COl. ORAOO •GAME, 3AME. FISH COLORADO FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet Numb e r 37 Number 11 WEATHER AND WEATHER AND SAGE SAGE GROUSE GROUSE PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Many Many factors factors are are known known to affect affect the productivity productivity of oof aa s-pecies species or the rate rate at at which which that species species repr reproduces duces itself. itself. These These include availability availability of of food food and cover, cover, reproductive reproductive rates rates of of the species, species, survival survival rates, rates, predation, predation, weather, weather, longevity, longevity, susceptibility susceptibility to to disease, disease, et cetera. cetera. Whether a population of of animals animals is increasing, increasing, decreasing, decreasing, or remaining remaining static static depends upon upon the relationship relationship of of the productivity productivity of that population to the removal removal rate. rate. Dakota related to May anct weather. SpeDakota were related and June weather. cifically cifically hig:h high productivity productivity and high survival survival were were closely closely associated associated with, and perhaps perhaps dependent on, relatively May and June. relatively high precipitation precipitation during during May Consequently, rainfall occurring Consequently, the amount of rainfall occurring during during May May and and Junie June could determine determine the trend trend of the pheasant population. p. 78). population."11 (Martinson (Martinson and Grindahl, 1966; 1966;p. 78). METHODS METHODS Attempts were were made to correlate correlate sage grouse grouse proproduction duction in the Lake John area. area of North Park, Park, Colorado, with two weather variables, temperature temperature and weather variables, Weather has been shown shown to exhibit aa dominating precipitation. Some index was needed precipitation. which would effect effect on the reproductive reproductive success success and survival survival of of adequately reflect production of sage grouse. Annual adequately reflect production grouse. many species species of gallinaceous gallinaceous game game bil'ds. birds. Studies on on ruffed grouse grouse and and pheasants pheasants have indicated indicated that that there there is a definite correlation correlation between spring spring temperatures temperatures ~ 0 I• ~ □ following spring spring (Larsen (Larsen and and populations the following Lahey, 1958). 1958). Wagner (IN (IN Larsen Larsen and and Lahey, Lahey, 1958) 1958) found found with regard regard to to pheasants pheasants that that early early hatching were correlated correlated with with spring spring seasons seasons characcharacdates were terized terized by high temperatures, temperatures, and, and, in turn, turn, early early hatching dates dates were were correlated correlated with increases increases in in fall pheasant pheasant populations. His data indicated indicated that chicks which hatched from from eggs laid laid early early in the nesting season season had aa lower rate rate of mortality mortality than those those hatched later later in the season. season. hatched Pyrah Pyrah (1963) (1963) reported reported aa similar similar relationship relationship with sage grouse grouse hatching periods periods and and hatching success success and survival. survival. Again, Again, broods which were hatched early early in the spring spring suffered suffered aa lower lower rate rate of of mortality mortality than broods broods which hatched late. late. There There also appeared appeared to be difference in in mortality mortality according according to the the sex of the aa difference chick in that male male chicks suffered suffered aa higher higher mortality mortality females. than females. In southwestern southwestern North Dakota high reproductive reproductive In success was found found to be associated associated with relatively relatively success cool weather weather during May and June. These These findings led North Dakota Dakota biologists biologists to conclude that "productivity "productivity and survival survival among pheasants pheasants in southwestern southwestern North 1 lContribution Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-37-R. W-37-R. contribution from Federal I.DUL? ADULTrOTAL MALES 400 rol'AL ~ .w,:s MALES S!l!WlT.T SUBADU~T ~ MALES .Apr..-.June, Apr.-June, 1962" 1962 Total Pcpt. = ;.54 in. Mean Ave. Temp. = 45.30p' 4ool;;;:1·~::~,i;/!' 4r.j<>y )80 J,80 )60 )60 )40 )40 Apr. -Juao, 1963 Apr._June, 1963 Total Pcpt. In. Total. Pci>t. ;= 2.82 1.n. 0 Mean Ave. Temp. 44.)oFF Mo~ ~va. Temp. •= 44.) )20 )20 )00 JO<! 280 260 240 :4: r.. ~~ 0 220 220t B§ ~ 200 200 ,~ 180 ISO ~ 160 160 ~ z Apr._June, 1964 ~~;~A,:~:tTe:p~·~04~~2oF 140 I"<> 120 120 100 100 80 80 50 60 40 40 20 2~L 0 Figure between weather weather (precipitation Figure 1. 1. R11lationship Relationship between (precipitation and temperature) temperature) and sage sage grouse grouse strutting strutting male counts the following spring. spring. �road road counts counts of of sage sage grouse grouse broods broods were were believed believed to to be be inadequate inadequate because because insufficient insufficient counts counts were were conconducted ducted each each year year to to furnish furnish reliable reliable ratios ratios of of young youngper per adult adult female. female . Sex Sex ratios ratios of of the the hunter hunter harvest harvest were were rejected rejected because because there there were were indications indications that that they they were were biased biased by by hunter hunter selectivity selectivity and and other other factors. factors. Ultimately Ultimately itit was was decided decided that that strutting strutting ground ground counts counts of of male male sage sage grouse grouse would would provide provide the the best best indication indication of of production production from from the the previous previous year year since since much much of of the the fluctuation fluctuation in in total total strutting strutting male male counts counts from from year yea1· to to year year was was attributable attributable to to fluctuafluctuations tions in in the the numbers numbers of of subadult subadult males males (males (males which which have have not not completed completed their their first first breeding breeding season, season, but but which which have have essentially essentially adult adult plumage) plumage) (Fig. (Fig. 1). 1). RESULTS RESULTS (Note (Note -- The The following following RESULTS RESULTS section section involves involves aa. detailed detailed discussion discussion of of the the statistical statistical tests tests used used to to analyze analyze the the data. data. The The conclusions conclusions as as they they pertain pertain to to management management are are contained contained within within the the SUMMARY SUMMARY section.) section.) Numbers Numbers of of subadult supadult males males counted counted during during anyone any one spring spring then then would would reflect reflect production production of of the the previous previous year. year. The The reason reason for for using using the the total total male male count count as as the the index rather than than just just the the subadult subadult male male count count was was index rather that that prior prim:· to to 1963 no no attempts attempts were were made made to to count count the the two classes of males males separately. separately. two age age classes Sage Sage grouse grouse strutting strutting male male counts counts for for the the period period 1959-1965 1959- 1965 were were correlated correlated with with temperature temperature and and preprecipitation cipitation indices indices for for April April -- June June during during the the period period 1958-1964 1958-1964 (Table (Table 1). 1). Partial Partial correlation correlation coefficients coefficients were were used used instead ins tead of of total total correlation correlation coefficients coefficients because because it it was was observed observed that that precipitation precipitation and and temtemperature perature also also were were associated, associated, and and therefore therefore any any total total correlation correlation between between production production (Y) (Y) and and temperatemperature ture (Xl) (Xl) also also would would include include aa masked masked effect effect of of preprecipitation cipitation (X2) (X2) acting acting on on both both temperature temperature and and proproduction. duction. Partial Partial correlation, correlation, on on the the other other hand, hand, allowed for the the removal removal of of the the effects effects of precipitation precipitation allowed for while while studying studying the the temperature-production temperature- production relationrelationship. ship. The The temperature temperature index index used used was was calculated calculated by by finding !indipg the the mean mean of the the average average daily daily temperatures temperatures for for the the period period April April through through June June of each each year year (here(hereafter referred to to as as the the mean mean average average temperature). temperature) . after referred This This was was believed believed to to be the the critical critical period period for for sage sage grouse grouse nests nests and a.lld broods. broods. The The precipitation precipitation index index was was arrived arrived at at in a similar similar manner manner by by taking taking the the total total number number of inches inches of precipitation precipitation during during the the period period April April through through June. June. Temperature Temperature and precipitation precipitation data data were were recorded recorded daily daily as as a part part of the the study. study. The The partial partial correlation correlation coefficient coefficient between between proproduction duction and temperature temperature with with the the effects effects of precipitaprecipitation tion removed removed was: was: rr y1.2 yl.2 =0.824, =0.824, which which was was signifisignificant cant at at the the 0.05 level level of rejection rejection (Snedecor, (Snedecor, 1956; p. This indicated indicated that that high mean mean temperatures temperatures p. 174). This for for the the period period April April - June June resulted resulted in strutting strutting ground ground counts counts the the following following spring spring with with a high high proproportion portion of subadult subadult males. males. A regression regression formula formula was was calculated, calculated, and the the regression regression of production production on temtemperature perature was was plotted plotted (Fig. (Fig. 2). With With this this regression regression equation known equation itit should should be be possible possible to predict, predict, within withinknown confidence confidence limits, limits, the the strutting strutting male male count count of sage sage Year Year Ave. Ave. Temp. Temp . (OF) (OF) Apr.-June Apr . -June Year Year Total Total Pcpt. Pcpt. (inches) (inches) Apr.-June Apr ,-June 1958 1958 45.0 45.0 1958 1958 1.17 1.17 19.':19 19;i9 372 372 1959 1959 44.7 44. 7 1959 1959 2.77 2.77 1960 1960 446 446 1960 1960 44.7 44.7 1960 1960 1.37 1.37 1961 1961 363 36) 1961 1961 41+.6 44.6 1961 1961 3.61 J.61 1962 1962 395 395 1962 1962 45.3 4_5.J 1962 1962 3.54 3.54 1963 1963 377 377 1963 196) 44.3 44.J 1963 1963 2.82 2.82 1964 1964 337 337 1964 1964 43.2 4-J.2 1964 1964 1.10 1.10 1965 1965 166 166 Year Year Sum Sllln of of Maximum Maximum Counts Counts of of Strutting St rutting Males Males ........................................................................... ......... .................. .. .......... .................. ...................... . Ave. Ave. 1958-1964 1958-1964 Ave. Ave . Ave. Ave . 44.5 44.5 1958-1964 1958-1964 2.35 2.35 1959-1965 1959-1965 351 351 Table L Relationship nesting and early Table 1. Relationship of weather weather during during the nesting early brood brood rearing rearing season season to strutting strutting male male counts counts the following spring. spring. �grouse in the Lake John area area for for any year, year, given the grouse 1 ature mean temperature for April April - June of the mean average average tempe1 preceeding year. year. preceeding 460 460 440 ll40 "20 400 "00 }80 )80 }60 SUMMARY SUMMARY f J}"O ~; Ii I • Jf,64 J2 JO j!l "' ZS 26 J X PREDICTION FORY.ULA ffiEIUCT!Ol< :Oil!-(UU Y = ..4,605.11 _".605.11 + 111.27X Y: i 111.271 I CO:mELATION COEFFICIENT CO:llU:UTION COE."FICrENT , a= O. S.56 r 0.856 I "' 16 "2 cipitation on production production was determined determined by adding the cipitation coefficient of determination, determination, r~1 (0. (0.736), coefficient 736), between between production and temlerature partial coefficient coefficient production tem:ferature to the tne partial between precipitation precipitation determination, ryY.2.1 of determination, 2, 1 (0.132), between and production effects of temperature temperature reproduction with the effects removed. The resultant resultant figure figure was 0.868 which was moved, interpreted to mean that approximately 87 87 percent interpreted that approXimately percent of fluctuations in spring spring strutting strutting male male counts counts (produc(producfluctuations accounted for combined effects effects tion index) was accounted for by the combined during the -period period of temperature temperature and precipitation precipitation during April - June of the preceeding preceeding year. April year. 4J r.,, 4S "} 44 "5 MEAN AVERAGE TEMPER~TURE (OF) MI:A11 AV:ll.AG~ =.ATIIRE (OY) 46 primary effect effect of weather weather on gallinaceous gallinaceous The primary game birds birds is manifested manifested in nesting nesting success success and sursurchicks. The two most most important important weather weather vival of young chicks. factors reported reported in the literature were ttemperature factors Literature were emperature precipitation during during the nesting nesting and early brood and precipitation early brood rearing season. season. Investigations Investigations conducted conducted in the Lake rearing area of North Park Park, Colorado, Colorado, indicated indicated that that John area temperature most important important single single factor factor temperature was the most affecting sage grouse productiVity. productivity. Variations Variations in affecting sage gTouse temperature alone accounted accounted for 68 temperature 68 percent percent of the variability in strutting strutting male male counts variability counts the following spring, and the combined combined effects effects of temperature spring, temperature and precipitation accounted for 87 percent percent of the variation. variation. precipitation accounted relationship between between temperature Knowledge of the relationship temperature production permitted calculation of a predicpredicand production permitted the calculation formula from from which reliable reliable predictions struttion formula predictions of strutmale coW1ts counts can be made. general it was found ting male made. In general that when the mean average average temperature that temperature for for the period April - June June exceeded exceeded 44.5° period April 44. 5• F, good production production resulted. Also it was found that the best best production resulted. production Figure 2. Relationship average temFigure Relationship between between mean average temperatures April-- June June and sage sage grouse grouse production production peratures for April based on annual spring spring counts of males males on strutting strutting based grounds. grounds. partial correlation correlation coefficient coefficient between between proThe partial production and precipitation precipitation with the effects temperaduction effects of temperature removed was: r y2.l y2.1 = = 0.364, indicating ture removed indicating no significant correlation correlation between production production and prepresignilic.ant cipitation at the 0.05 level level of significance. significance. cipitation coefficients of determination determination (r~1 and r ~2. Vt) The coefficients were computed from from the correlation correlation coefficient coefficient bewere tween production temperature and the partial partial production and temperature correlation coefficient coefficient between precipitation and proconelation between precipitation production (see (see Steel Steel and Torrie, Torrie, 1960, 1960, for for notations duction notations of r). According According to Steel Steel and Torrie Torrie (1960} (1960) coefficients coefficients determination indicate indicate what proportion proportion of the total total of determination sum of squares squares of the dependent dependent variable variable is is attributattributsum independent variable·, variable, or what percent percent of able to the independent variability in Y is accounted for by variations variations in the variability accounted for X. The total total combined combined effect effect of temperature pretemperature and pre- ••tl• ~e rolloving following scale pertains only to the i:..n Lake John John Area strutting Th• portA.i:>o ao1;y to tho Ar•• ~tUA& ground complex. p-<Kmdetoaplu. EXCELtENT~ ::0: 400+ 400+ total strutting males SX!liiLUll!'I t ot al. &trutt.1nl! ...i.s GOOD GOOO =• J}O }50 -- l<OO 400 total total smtUnc strutting ...i maJ..s .. FAIR ?ADI a POOR POOR. less than )00 total strutting lUl_•·s males •= 1H-.!I th@ JOO tot.al. s-tt"Ulting- = ,oa )00 -- JSC 350 total strutting males total ~ <al .. PRECIPITATION (Al'RIL -_ Jll!IE) JUNE) PRECIPI:r&ll08 (.ll'll.IL 3 1n... :Jin 4 in. "'· in. l1 i.n. 2 in. 2 '-"· 4<>°F "6"r GOOD EXCELLENT ll1CBLI.DIT •..i:i 4S°r "5"F GOOD' G00D' GOCD GOOD S 4lfoF ll&°F FAIR Pila FAIR F~ ,,}"F "J°F POOR' POOll' POOR l'OClt POOR POOa POOR l'00l! 42°, 2°v POOR l'OOa POOR !'001! POOR l'OOa POOR l'OOR 0: ::i !;] • = =-=· EXCELLENT EXCELLENT £1CEL!E:,'T EXCELLENT' EXCELLENT- • EXC!:l.l.!2ff FAIR' 1ilR• FAIR Fill! Indicates years data 'IJ were avilla-ole 1n in the given eategories. !ndi.eatM ,-011.rS for t~ which ~clJ ,dd.a ■ NII -..&ilabll! t b• g1Ten c;ategorta-:s. rest are values based upon knownrelationships. the rt.St ..:-• predicted prod.1.c:t.od "Vili ■ .s but!!ld. ap.rn knovu rehU~!u:p1. Table 2. Key to predicting sage grouse grouse production Table predicting sage production success (based on strutting male counts counts the success strutting male following spring) from mean mean average average temspring) from temperature data data and -precipitation precipitation for the period perature fortheperiod April June. April - June. �resulted resulted from from spring spring seasons seasons which bad had a mean average average temperature temperature above 45.0°F 45.0°F and two or more more inches of total total precipitation. precipitation. Martinson, Martinson, R.K., R. K., and C.R. C. R. Grindahl. 1966. 1966. Weather Weather pheasant populations in southwestern southwestern North and pheasant Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. A A scale scale for evaluating evaluating the combined combined effects effects of temperature temperature and precipitation precipitation was constructed constructed from known known and predicted predicted values 'values (Table 2) 2).. Although the actual actual figures figures associated associated with this this scale scale were were perpertinent only to the Lake Lake John area area of North Park, Park, Colorado, it is probable probable that that similar similar relationships relationships exist exist for other other sage grouse grouse producing producing areas areas in the State of Colorado. Pyrah, Pyrah, D. D. B. 1963. 1963. Sage grouse grouse investigations, investigations. Idaho Fisll Fish and Game Dep. Dep.,, Wildl. WildI. Restoration Restoration Div. Div. Job Comp1. R-2. 71 CompI. Rep. Proj. Proj. W-125W-125-R-2. 71 pp.. One interesting interesting sidelight sidelight in connection with these these data is that that when spring spring counts of strutting strutting males males were were correlated correlated with hunter hunter harvest harvest data of the previous previous year, year, no significant significant correlation correlation resulted resulted (r = 0.324). From From this it was apparent apparent that present present levels levels of of hunting pressure pressure have had little little or no effect on sage gJ·ouse grouse populations populations in the Lake John area; area; instead, instead, the most most important important factors factors affecting affecting these these populations were were found found to be the combined effects effects of temperature temperature and precipitation precipitation during during nesting nesting and early early brood brood rearing. rearing. Steel, Steel, R.G.D., and JJ.. H. H. Torrie. Torrie. 1960. 1960. Principles Principles and procedures Hill Book procedures of of statistics. statistics. McGrawMcGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New New York, York. 481 481 p. Snedecor, Snedecor, G. G. W. W. 1956. 1956. Statistical Statistical methods applied applied to experiments experiments in agriculture agriculture and biology. The Iowa State College Press, Press, Ames, Ames. 534 534 p. = LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Larsen, Larsen, JJ.. A., and J. J. F. F. Lahey. 1958. 1958. Influence of of weather weather upon a ruffed ruffed grouse grouse population. J. Wildl. WildI. Manage. 22: 22: 63-70, 63-70. R. Bruce Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate April, April, 1966 1966 �Facts Outdoor Facts 0 1t 00 J. ,Jtf PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. COLORADO Number 38 Number 38 Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet YIELD AND AND UTILIZATION UTILIZATION OF THREE THREE DEER YIELD OF DEER WINTER RANGE BROWSE BROWSE SPECIES SPECIES WINTER RANGE l1 Figure L Hewlett Gulch Study Area, Area, lower-winter lower-winter Figure 1, range. Photo by A. A. E. Anderson Anderson range. Figure 3. Sevenmile Sevenmile Creek Creek Study Area, Area, upper-winter Figure upper-winter range. Photo by D. D. E. Medin range. age for mule deer deer in many parts parts of north-central north-central Colorado. On On the basis basis of their desir- Colorado. their abundance and desir ability as forage, three species were selected selected for ability forage, the three species were utilization estimates estimates as part part of a more more yield and utilization comprehensive deer ecology on the comprehensive study of mule deer Poudre River River watershed. watershed. Estimates, Cache la Poudre Estimates , in quantities of actual actual weights produced produced and utilized, utilized, quantities were made twice annually from from the autumn (yield) were of 1962 1962 through through the spring spring (utilization) (utilization) of 1965. 1965. The of results are are reported reported here here as a basic contribution to results basic contribution management of heterogeneous heterogeneous deer deer winter management winter rranges. anges. Figure 2. Kelly Flats Area, Figure Flats Study Area, range. Photo by D. range. D. E. Medin middle-winter middle-winter Three 500-acre 500-acre study areas were sampled, sampled, each each Three areas were representing wintering elevational elevational zone: Hewlett representing a wintering (lower-winter) (Figure (Figure 1) 1),, Kelly Flats Flats (middleGulch (lower-winter) winter) (Figure (Figure 2), and Sevenmile Sevenmile Creek (upperwinter) Creek (upperwinter) (Figure (Figure 3). Each area included a wide variety variety winter) Each area of sites vegetative types. types. True True mountain mahogsites and vegetative most abundant shrub shrub on the lower-winter lower-winter any was the most area, with antelope bitterbrush and big sagebrush sagebrush the area, antelope bitterbrush major shrub components on the middle-winter middle-winter and major shrub components upper-winter respectively (Table 1). 1). upper-winter zones respectively True mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus),, True (Cercocarpus montanus) antelope bitterbrush bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and big antelope (Purshia tridentata), sagebrush (Artemisia (Artemisia tridentata) tridentata) provide provide winter winter forsagebrush for- METHODS METHODS 1IContribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-105-R. W-I05-R. contribution from Parallel Sampling of each area area was systematic. systematic. Parallel transects with north-south orientation were estabtransects north-south orientation were estab- �lished 100lished at 8-chain 8-chain intervals. intervals. Permanently Permanently marked marked 100square circular plots were spaced 132-foot square foot circular plots were spaced at 132foot intervals transects. Sample sizes sizes varied varied from intervals along transects. 88 to 366 year, or 88 366 plots plots depending on on the study area, area, year species (Table 1). 1). species Weight estimate estimate (Pechanec (Pechanec and Pickford Pickford 1937a) 1937a) and double sampling sampling techniques. techniques described described by Blair Blair (1959) as the '"Dry Prediction Method' Method"' whereby (1959) 'Dry Weight Prediction whereby oven-dry are predicted directly from ovendry forage forage weights are predicted directly from estimated green green weights were sample yields. yields. estimated were used used to sample estimated plots to clipped double sample The ratio ratio of estimated clippe1.double sample plots was 10:1. 10:1. All current _plots current annual growth below a 5-foot height was included. Mountain mahogallY mahogauy weights were estimated without leaves, leaves, bitterbrush were estimated bitterbrush including those attached to current current twigs, and thos e leaves leaves attached big sagebrush sagebrush with all all leaves, leaves, both those those attached attached to current twigs and those attached attached to older older growth. current Pickford 1937b). 1937b). Percentage Percentage removal and Pickford r emoval by weight class" for each plant examined was made by •"use ·use class" estimates 1944). If utilization observed estimates (Clark 1944). utilization was not observed the plant zero. If utilized, the plant was given a rating rating of zero. Ii utilized classes l1 to 5 plant was assigned assigned a '"use use class"; class' • the classes mid-range values of 10, 10, 30, 50, 70 70 and 90 90 having midrange values percent respectively. The mid-range were percent respectively. mid-range values values were derive an average used to derive average utilization utilization weight by plant and plot yields estimated the previous yields estimated previous autumn. Estimates of of deer deer numbers numbers (Table 2) 2) were were based Estimates based on pellet same 100-square 100-square pellet group counts made on the same circular plots used estimating forage forage yield and foot circular used in estimating use. An defecation rate 13 pellet use. An average average daily defecation rate of 13 pellet deer per assumed. Conversion Conversion of groups per per deer per day was assumed. pellet groups estimated deer deer numbers numbers was after after _pellet groups to estimated Ferguson Ferguson (1955). (1955). RESULTS RES UL TS ANDDISCUSSION AND DISCUSSION Winter utilization utilization of current current annual growth by deer deer was estimated estimated during May by the ocuduring late April and May lar-estimate-by-average-of-plants (Pechanec lar-estimate- by- average- of-plants method (Pecha.nee Oven-dry species and Ovendry yields yields per per acre acre for each species study area area are are presented listed yields presented in Table 1. The listed yields oven-dry yields yields of true true mountain mahogany, antelope bitterbrush, bitterbrush, and big 1.--Average density density and oven-dry Table 1.--Average sagebrush on three winter range range areas, areas, Cache la Poudre 1962-1964. sagebrush three winter Poudre Canyon, Canyon, Colorado, 19621964. Study Area Area Study Elevation (ft) (ft) and Elevation Hewlett Gulch Gulch 5,800 - 7,100 7 100 Flats Kelly Flats 6,600 - 7,760 61600 Sevenmile Creek Creek 7,440 - 8,760 Species Species Confidence Sample Size Oven-dry Yield Limits Limits Oven-dry Density (100-sq (90%level) sq ft plots) (lbs/acre) (90% level) (100(plants/ acre) acre) Year (lbs/ acre) True mountain mahogany True (Cercocarpus montanus) (Cercocarpus 665 665 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 14.8 11.0 5.6 11.6 -- 18.0 9.4 - 12.2 4.2 - 6.9 112 112 366 366 366 366 Antelope bitterbrush bitterbrush (Purshia (Purshia tridentata) tridentata) 350 350 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 29.0 12.0 5.6 39.1 18.9 - 39.1 8.9 - 15. 15.1 l 4.2 - 6.9 115 115 366 366 366 366 True mountain mahogany True 757 757 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964. 9.9 3.1 5.2 7.4 - 12.4 2.0 - 4.2 3.5 - 6.9 88 88 299 299 299 299 Antelope bitterbrush bitterbrush 838 838 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 43.6 8.5 8. 5 13.3 13,3 290957.3 29. 9 - 57.3 4.4 - 12.6 12.6 11.2 - 15. 15.4 11.2 4 91 91 299 299 299 299 True mountain mahogany True 179 179 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 2.9 2.0 0.5 0.7 - 5.1 4.2 0.0 - 4. 0,0 2 0.0 -- 1.4 o.o 53 53 295 295 295 295 Antelope bitterbrush bitterbrush l1,593 ,S93 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 39.3 19.5 12.4 24.5 ~- 54.l 54.1 14.3 - 24.3 24.3 14.3 10.1 - 14. 14.7 10.1 7 88 88 295 295 295 295 Big sagebrush sagebrush (Artemisia (Artemisia tridentata) tridentata) 1,787 1,787 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 75.8 79.8 78.2 55.2 - 96. 96.4 55.2 4 91.1 68.5 - 91.l 88.6 67.8 - 88.6 88 88 295 295 295 295 �are averages averages derived derived from from sampling sampling an an entir entiree study are area area consisting consisting of of several several vegetative vegetative types types including coniferous coniferous forest forest and and meadow, meadow. Perhaps Perhaps the most most si_gnificant stimates ar significant results results of the production production eestimates aree two: (1) (1) the surprisingly surprisingly low low total total yields, yields, and (2) (2) the tlecllue decline of mow,tain mountain mal10gany mahogany and and bitterbrush bitterbrush yields yields in 1963 1963 and 1964. 1964. What What appear appear to be be high shrub shrub densities densities (Table 1), 1), types, lead lead one one to expect also including all vegetative vegetative types, much greater greater yields. yields. For For example, on on the Hewlett Gulch area area there there were were an an estimated estimated 665 665 mahogany plants plants per per acre acre and and a 1962 1962 average average mahogany yield of 14.8 acre, This gives a.ii 14.8 lbs/ Ibs/acre. an average average of of 0.022 0.022 pounds (9.99 (9.99 grams) grams) current current annual growth growth yield per per individual individual mahogany plant. It is evident that that large large numbers owse plants are numbers of productive productive br browse are required required to yield significant significant amounts of current current annual annual growth. Average Average mountain mahogany yields on the Hewlett Gulch area 8 lbs/acre area dropped from 14. 14.8 Ibs/acre in in 1962 1962 to 5. 6 lbs/ 5.6 Ibs/ acre acre in 1964; 1964; bitterbrush bitterbrush from 29.0 to 5.6 5.6 Ibs/ acre in in the same same time time span. Similar Similar declines declines lbs/acre were were recorded recorded for these these species species on the other other winter winter range ush forage range study areas areas (Table (Table 1). 1). Big sagebr sagebrush forage yields yields did not decline decline over the same same p,eriod. period. Associated ciated with reduced reduced yields yields of mountain mountain mahogany and bitterbrusb precipibitterbrush was aa marked marked decline decline in annual precipitation he consistent tation (Medin (Medin 1965). 1965). T The consistent yield of big sagesagebrush brush despite despite reduced reduced precipitation precipitation m-ay may indicate indicate aa greater greater tolerance tolerance to dry conditions. conditions. Weight utilization utilization of of current current annual g:rowth growth by deerdeer Weight varied varied considerably considerably between between species, species, years, years, and sstudy tudy areas mountain areas (Table (Table 2). Average Average use of mountain mahogai1y mahogany varied varied from 3.3 3,3 percent percent during during the winter winter of 196263 on r ea to 58. 8 percent 1962-63 on the Hewlett Gulch Gulch aarea 58,8 percent at 65. Bitterbirush, at Sevenmile Creek Creek in 19641964-65, Bitterbrush, common three winter winter range range study areas" areas, appeared appeared tthe on all three he most ed species lowest of most consistently consistently utiliz utilized species with a lowest 6. 7 percent 63 and a 6.7 percent at at Sevenmile Sevenmile Creek Creek in 19621962-63 highest 7 percent highest of of 24. 24,7 percent at Kelly Flats Flats during during the winter of of 1963-64. 1963-64. winter Table 2.-Average deer 2.--Average deer numbers numbers and winter winter utilization utilization of of true true mountain mahogany, antelope bitterbrush, bitterbrush, and big sagebrush 1965. sagebrush on three three winter winter range areas, areas, Cache Cache la Poudre Poudre Canyon, Colorado, Colorado, 19621962-1965. Study Study Area Area and and Elevation Elevation {ft) (ft) Hewlett Gul ch Gulch 6,800 5,800 - 7,100 7,100 Flats Kelly Flats 6,600 6,600 -- 7,760 7,760 Sevenmile Creek Creek 8,760 7,440 -- 8,760 Year Year (winter) Utilization utilization (% weight) (%weight) Confidence Confidence LLimits imits {90% level) (90%level) Deer Density Deer Density (number/ sq mi) (number/sq mil True True mountai mountainn mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) (Cercocarpus 196263 1962-63 196364 1963-64 1964-65 3. 3 3.3 9.0 9.0 13.7 13.7 1.9 1.9 -- 4,7 4.7 7. 0 -- 11.0 7.0 11.0 11.1 -- 16.3 16,3 11.l 33 33 28 34 34 bitterbrush Antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) tridentata) (Purshia 196263 1962-63 1963-64 196364 196466 1964-65 7,4 7.4 20.0 20.0 17.7 17.7 5.8 9.0 5. 8 -- 9.0 15.9 24.1 15. 9 -- 24.1 14,4 14. 4 -- 21.0 True True mountain mahogany 1962-63 1962-63 196364 1963-64 1964-65 196465 13,6 13.6 37,0 37.0 20.5 9.5 - 17.7 9.5-17.7 32. 6 -- 41.4 32.6 17.7 17.7 -- 23.3 23.3 bitterbrush ush Antelope bitterbr 196263 1962-63 196364 1963-64 196465 1964-65 18.0 18.0 24.7 13.3 13.3 13.8 2 13.8 - 22. 22.2 21,4 -- 28. 28,0 21.4 0 11.3 11.3 - 15.3 15.3 True mountain mahogany True 1962-63 1963-64 196364 1964-65 196465 34.6 34.6 41.8 58. 8 58.8 20.1 49.1 20. 1 -- 49. 1 35.6 - 48. 0 48.0 51.6 -- 66.0 66,0 51.6 Antelope bitterbrusb bitterbrush 1962-63 1962-63 1963-64 196364 196465 1964-65 6.7 6.7 9.9 9.9 21.5 5.1 - 8.3 5.1 8.5 11.3 8. 5 -- 11.3 19.4 6 19.4 -- 23. 23,6 Big Sageb1•ush Sagebrush (Artemisia (Artemisia tridentata) tridentata) 1962-63 196263 196364 1963-64 196465 1964-65 7. 0 7.0 4.9 11.9 11.9 4.6 -- 9.4 9.4 4,0 4.0 -- 5.8 10.3 - 13. 13.5 10.3 5 Species Species 40 52 52 59 59 39 28 61 61 �Big sagebrush, sagebrush, occurring occurring in in abundance only only on the Sevenmile Creek Creek area, area, was in general general the least least utilized utilized with percentages percentages varying varying from 4.9 in 1963-64 1963-64 to 11.9 11.9 in 1964-65. 1964-65. The The increase increase in utilization utilization of of all all species species at Sevenmile Creek Creek in 1964-65 1964-65 reflects reflects a large large increase increase in the wintering wintering deer deer population (Table 2). 2). The The heavy use of of mountain mountain mahogany mahogany and and the contrastingly contrastingly light use of big sagebrush sagebrush on on this area area indicates indicates a tendency of of increased increased utilization utilization when when aa desirable desirable forage forage species species occurs occurs as a minor component of of the the shrub shrub population and aa reduced reduced use when when occurring occurring as aa major major or or dominant dominant element. element. Average utilization es utilization of the three three browse browse speci species can can be interpreted interpreted as relatively relatively light or moderate. moderate. The estimates, estimates, however, are are aa sample sample of utilization utilization occurring occurring throughout an entire entire study study area area having aa wide range range of of sites sites and complex topography and and vegetative associations. associations. Use was aimost almost nonnon-existent vegetative existent on a iew few sites sites yet extremely extremely heavy on on others. others. Lack on of uniformity uniformity in utilization, utilization, whether by site site or or regardless of the species species individual plant, was evident regardless or or study study area. area. Clark, Clark, I. 1944. 1944. Field comparisons comparisons in e:;timating estimating perpercentage utilization utilization of of range range forage plants plants by direct direct percentage use class percentage and and by ""use class"1' eshmates. estimates. Utah Acad, Acad. Sci., SCi., Arts Arts and Letters Letters 21:7 21:7 (abstract). (abstract). Ferguson, Ferguson, R. R. B. B. 1955. 1955. The pellet pellet group count method by censusing thesis, Utah censusing mule deer deer in in Utah. Utah. M.S. thesis, State State Univ., Logan, Logan, 94 pp. (processed). (processed). Medin, D. R ProjProjD. E. 1965. 1965. Climatic Climatic environmemt. environment. PP-R ect W105- R, Work Plan W-105-R, Plan 3, 3, Job 11 Completion Completion Report, Colo. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Dept., Game Research Research Report, January, January, 1965 1965 (processed). (processed). Pechanec, D. Pickford. Pechanec, J. F. and and G. G. D. Pickford. Hl37a. 1937a. A weight estimate estimate method for the the determination determination of range range or pasture pasture production. Jour. Jour. Amer. ArneI'. Soc. Agron. 29: 894-904. ____ ,, and _ _ _ _ , 1937b. 1937b. A c:ompa1i.son comparison of of _ determining percentage percentage some methods used in determini11g utilization of of range range grasses. grasses. Jour. Jour. Agr. Res. Res. 54: 54: utilization 753-765. 753-765. LITE RA T1JRE CITED LITERATURE Blair, R. R. M. 1959. Weight techniques techniques for sampling sampling Blair, M. 1959. browse production production on on deer deer ranges. ranges. In Techniques and and Methods of Measuring Measuring Uncterstory Understory Vegetation. Proceedings Proceedings of aa Symposiun1 Symposium at Tifton, Georgia, 1958. Southern Forest Forest Exp. Sta. and and SouthOct., 1958. eastern 31. eastern Forest Forest Exp. Exp. Sta., Sta., pp. pp. 2626-31. Dean E E.. Medin Medin Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher Associate and and Allen E E.. Anderson A.llen Associate Associate Wildlife Researcher Researcher April, April, 1966 1966 �OL1tdoo1~ Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUSUSl-lEO DEPT. COLORADO COLORADO GAME, GAME, Ft5H FISH nnd and PARKS PARKS DEPT. d·· Il' d .: ,I' Number39 Number 39 Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet GENERAL INFORMATION ON AND COVER GENERAL INFORMATION ON FOOD FOOD AND COVER REQUIREMENTS OF IN l1 REQUIREMENTS OF GROUSE GROUSE IN COLORADO COLORADO With the present present emphasis emphasis of of federal federal land management ment agencies agencies on 011 range range treatment treatment programs, programs, Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks Department Department and other other conservation conservation agency personnel personnel should find a basic basic knowledge of the food requirements requirements of grouse grouse very very useful. useful. Range treattreatment projects projects tend to alter alter habitats habitats by changing the types types and amounts of food and cover. cover. These These alteraalterations lions may may be beneficial beneficial or detrimental detrimental to grouse grouse populations ulations depending on the changes changes in plant composition. composition. There There are are numerous numerous technical technical publications publications detaildetailing the food food and cover cover requirements requirements of grouse. grouse. Few, however, are are specific specific for Colorado Colorado and none none cover cover all the variations variations in range range types types that that occur occur in this this state. state. For For this this reason reason and because because of of the limited limited length of this this article, article, subject subject matter matter will be limited limited to general general statements statements (Table 1). 1). Anyone Anyone wishing wishing specific information information is urged urged to consult consult the literature literature review, review, appended. Species Spring Sutmner Surmner Fall Blue grouse Conifers Forbs Shrubs Forbs Insects Shrubs Forbs Rocks Forbs Insects Grass Forbs Insects Grass Forbs Insects Meadows Sage,2 Forbs Sage Insects Grass Shrubs Rocks Forbs Grains Grass Forbs Ptarmigan Greater Prairie chicken Willows Forbs Tree Buds Grass Forbs Lessor Prairie chicken Grass Forbs Sag~ grouse Sagebrush Forbs Shrubs Sharptailed grouse Grass Sharp-tailed Forbs Shrubs Forbs Conifers Snow Willows Conifers Grains Grass Forbs Shrubs Grains Grass Grass, Forbs Forbs Sagebrush Sage Grass Forbs, Shrubs Sagebrush Grains Forbs Snow, Snow, Shrubs Table 1.l,--General Requirements of Grouse in Colorado. Colorado. Table - General Cover and Food Requirements 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project WW-37-R. contribution from 37-R. Winter �Except when when referring referring to particular particular items items of cover, rocks for ptarmigan ptarmigan (Figure (Figure 1), 1), or cover, such as rocks specific items class specific items of food such as insects, insects, the plant class referred to will furnish furnish both food cover. In some referred food and cover. instances, the height or species species of of plant denotes instances, whether it will be utilized utilized for food, food, cover, or both. A whether good example is the inter-relationship inter-relationship between sage good grouse and sagebrush sagebrush (Artemisia spp.). grouse (Artemisia spp. ). Tall sage, sage, 24 inches, inches, including several several species over 24 species and subspecies of the Section Tridentatae, Tridentatae, is used mainly for species roosting and resting resting cover. cover. Use as food food may be roosting and limited to winter shorter varieties varieties of limited winter periods periods when when shorter sagebrush are unavailable. Shorter Shorter sage, ranging ranging sagebrush are unavailable. from a few 18 inches in height, apparently apparently few inches to 18 food and comprises is preferred preferred as food comprises most of the nest2). ing cover cover (Figure 2). Figure 1.l,--Above timberline, where alpine and and subalpine vegetation is interspersed interspersed with rocks rocks and and an occasoccasFigure - Above timberline, ional snowbank, snowbank, is the summer summer range of of the ptarmigan. ptarmigan. Figure2.--Gently terrain covered covered with sage-brush sage-brush of of varying varying heights, with Figure -2 .--Gently rolling rolling terrain interspersed with numerous numerous small small parks parks are are needed for good good sage grouse habitat. habitat. interspersed free water water available, free available, and �Blue grouse grouse may use conifers conifers the year year around for cover, cover, while using using it as a source source of food only during during the winter winter and early early spring spring (Figure (Figure 3). Grass Grass appears appears to be a necessary necessary cover cover item item for prairie chickens chickens and sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse (Figure (Figure 4), prairie grouse may prefer prefer range where grass grass is a and all grouse Except for the prairie prairie chicken, however, component. Except grass grass is a minor minor item item in the diet of grouse, grouse. Forbs, including the cultivated cultivated legumes, legumes, appear appear to Forbs, furnish portion of the summer furnish the major major portion summer food supply of all adult grouse. grouse. Insects Insects and forbs are are the major major items in the diet of the young. young. In addition, forbs food items necessary cover cover item item for for grouse grouse broods. broods. may be a necessary Shrubs Shrubs vary vary from being a major major to aa minor minor part part of of the diet of grouse. grouse. Only Only with the greater greater prairie prairie chicken, however, are are they not a necessary necessary component environments. in the environments. Despite Despite the many ecological ecological studies studies of our grouse grouse species, species, much is still still to be learned learned regarding regarding the relationship relationship between between each species species and its its environenvironment. With the reliance reliance of all grouse grouse species species upon aa variety variety of plant classes, classes, any range treatment treatment project project that tends to eliminate eliminate one or two of these these classes classes that carefully studied. studied~ should be carefully Figure Figure 3. 3. --Foothill --Foothill and mountain areas areas above 7,000 feet feet elevation elevation covered covered with intermixed intermixed stands stands of shrubs shrubs trees, with numerous numerous openings, and free free water water furnishes furnishes the best best summer summer habitat habitat for blue grouse. grouse. and trees, Figure -Grasslands interspersed Figure 4.4.--Grasslands interspersed with shrubs shrubs on rough terrain terrain appear appear necessary necessary mountain species species of of sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse. grouse. for both the plains plains and �BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, Baker, M. M. F. 1953. 1953. Prairie Prairie chickens of of Kansas. Kansas. Univ. Univ. Rogers, iu Rogers, G. G. E. 1964. 1964. Sage Sage grouse inveistigations investigations in Colorado. Colo. Colo. Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks Dept., Tech. Publ. Pubt 16, 16, p. 132. 132. of of Kans. Misc. Misc. Pub. 5, p. 68. 68. Beer, Beer, J. 1943. 1943. Food habits of of the blue grouse, grouse. J. Wild!. Wildt Mgmt. Mgmt. 7(1): 7(1): 32-44 32-44.. Boag, D. D. A. A. 1963. 1963. Significance of location, location, year, year, sex, and and age age to the autumn autumn diet diet of blue grouse. grouse. J. Wild!. Wildl. Mgmt. 27(4): 27(4): 555-562". 555-562". Choate, T. S. 1963. 1963. Habitat Habitat and population dynamics of Montana. J. Wildl. of white-tailed white-tailed ptarmigan ptarmigan in Montana. Mgmt. 27(4) 699. 27(4):: 684684-699. Hart, C. J.B. C. M., 0. O. S. Lee, and andJ. B. Low. Low. 1950. 1950. The sharpsharptailed grouse grouse in utah. Utah. utah Utah Dept. of Fish Fish and and Game. tailed p. 79. p.79. Schmidt, F. J. W. W. 1936. 1936. Winter Winter food food of the sharpsharptailed tailed grouse and and pinnated grouse grouse in in Wisconsin. Wisconsin. Wild!. Bull. 47: Wildl.Bull. 47: 181-203, 181-203. Stewart, Stewart, R. E. 1944. 1944. Food habits of of blue grouse. grouse. Condor 120. Condor 46: 46: 112112-120. Swenk, Swenk, M. M. H. H. and and L. F. Selko. 1938. 1938. Latei Late autumn food of tailed grouse of the sharpsharp-tailed grouse in in western western Nebraska. Nebraska. JJ.. Wild!. 189. Wildt Mgmt. 2(4): 2(4): 184184-189. tailed ptarmiptarmiWeeden, Weeden, R.B, R. B. _ __ _ ,• Food Food of of the wh.i,tewhite-tailed gan. Unpub. Unpub. manuscript. manuscript. Jones, Jones, R. R. E. 1963. 1963. Identification Identification and analysis analysis of of lesser lesser greater prairie prairie chicken habitat. habitat. J. Wild!. Wildt Mgmt. and greater 27(4): 757-778. 27(4): Kobriger, Kobriger, G.D. G. D. 1965. 1965. Status, Status, movements, movements, habitat, habitat, and foods of prairie prairie grouse grouse on on aa sandhills sandhills refuge. refuge. J. foods Wild!. 800, Wildl. Mgmt., Mgmt., 29(4): 29(4): 788788-800. Glenn E. Rogers Rogers Assistant Assistant Wildlife, Wildlife Researcher Researcher May, May, 1966 1966 �Outdoor Facts Outdoor "]-· -- - - - ~ --------, ~ 141' PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUBLISHED COLORADO GAME, PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO GAME, FISH and PARKS 7i Number 40 Number40 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Le a flet CHRONOLOGY OF WATERFOWL WATERFOWL lV1IGRATION CHRONOLOGY OF MIGRATIO Winter ------ - - Winter Sept. Oct. Nov. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 15 15 15 15 15 15 I1 Spring Spring Dec. 15 15 Feb. Feb. 15 Jon. Jan. 15 Mar. Mar. 1'\ 1'- Aprilil Apr 15 May May 15 l ~~ Mallard Niallard IN COLORADO COLORADO IN Iii Pintail II Gadwall Gadwall Am. Widaeon Wicloeon Shoveller Shoveller 8hJe~I.ve:r!~ped ~~ped ~!e~WIng T,,.~1 T",nl _arid lesser Lesser ScauD Scaup I !I~ ', ,11. w~- ;a.;;r,- , .. n «•c , 1/IC J '"='"~ c, i ii ,, ICIC ( ~ ~ ' ~ ,, '< ~7t/ 1,n ii n• ,~ ~~. Bufflehead Buff lehea::J Ruddy Golc:leneyE Goldeneye Am. Merganse Merganse Canada Canada Goose Goose .. ~ Figure 11··Fall, Winter, and and Spr Spring Migration, By By Species, Species, in Colorado Colorado Figure .. Fal I, Winter, ing Waterfowl Waterfowl Migration, Colorado enjoys the rather rather unique position Colorado position in the Central Flyway Flyway of being year- round waterfowl state. Central being a yearwaterfowl state, states to the north north of us are are little little used used by winMost states tering waterfowl, waterfowl, with nesting rearing being being tering nesting and brood brood rearing the primary function of waterfowl waterfowl habitat; habitat; states states ssouth primary function outh produce little little in the way of ducks and geese, geese, but of us produce us 1lContribution from Federal Federal Aid Aio.Project W-88-R. contribution from Project W-88-R. winter large large numbers numbers of these Our fortunate fortunate winter these birds. birds. Our combination latitude and altitude altitude enables enables us us ttoo combination of latitude offer migratory waterfowl habitat habitat in substantial substantial migratory waterfowl amount at any season season of the year. year. We are, therefore, are, therefore, cognizant of the need for determining what highly cognizant for determining species migrate migrate through, through, into, or away from from the state, state, species into, or �and at what time time of the year year such such movements movements take place. place. Waterfowl Waterfowl management management in years years to come will inevitably evitably be more more intensive intensive than at the present present time. time. Utilization of the resource Utilization resource to the fullest fullest hunter hunter satissatisfaction faction will will mean mean increasing increasing emphasis emphasis on flock flock and species species management. management. Migration Migration information information for for all huntable huntable species species of waterfowl waterfowl in Colorado Colorado is fundafundamental particular importance, mental to such such management. management. Of Ofparticular importance, of course, course, is the the fall fall migration migration pattern, pattern, as this this constitutes stitutes the the basis basis upon which to recommend recommend waterfowl waterfowl seasons the Bureau seasons within within the framework framework provided provided by the Bureau of Sport Sport 'Fisheries 'Fisheries and Wildlife. Wildlife. Figure Figure 1 is aa graphic graphic illustration illustration of waterfowl waterfowl movement, movement, by species, species, within Colorado, Colorado, primarily primarily in the northeastern northeastern part part of the state. state. A A lag of one to two weeks weeks will will generally generally occur occur in the fall fall in the southeastern eastern part, part, and spring spring movement movement will be detected detected about one or or two weeks weeks earlier. earlier. In In the mountains mountains and on the the Western Western Slope, Slope, most most areas areas are are production production habitat habitat only, with spring spring migration migration into into these these areas areas occurring occurring during during April April and early early May, and a general general exodus October. Wintering exodus" taking taking place place about midmid-October. Wintering waterfowl waterfowl populations populations in the San San Luis Valley, Valley, averagaveraging about 18,00020,000 birds, 18,000-20,000 birds, and the the lower lower Colorado Colorado River River Valley Valley of western western Colorado, Colorado, averagtng averaging about 10,000 birds, to 99 birds, are are made up of of. 98 98 "to 99 percent percent mallards. mallards. They generally generally appear appear about November November 1 and leave leave in late late March. March. In examining examining Figure Figure 1, 1, it should should be borne borne in mind that the the lines lines denoting denoting fallfall-winter population movemovethat winter population ments ments and those those denoting spring spring population population movements ments do not refer refer to the same same groups groups of birds. birds. Fall Fall movement movement of waterfowl waterfowl in Colorado Colorado is composed composed of birds birds migrating migrating from from summer summer to winter winter habitat. habitat. For For some, some, it is aa movement movement out of the state, state, or or aa movement through through the state state from from areas areas farther farther north, north, of birds e. For birds which do not winter winter her here. For some some others, others, it is a movement movement into Colorado Colorado by birds birds which will will winter winter here. here. Wintering Wintering populations populations in Colorado Colorado generally erally begin begin to move back to more more northern northern nesting nesting areas areas at about the same same time time that that movement movement of spring spring migrants migrants from from the south first first appears. appears. Many spring spring migrants, fall migrants, migrants, just just as is is true true with many fall migrants, are are simply simply moving through through the state state and are are not resident resident at at any time. time. It is indicated indicated in Figure Figure 11 that that spring spring movement movement is largely largely finished finished by mid-May. mid-May. Generally, Generally, those those birds birds which nest nest in Colorado Colorado have arrived arrived considerably considerably earlier earlier than this this date. date. Figure Figure 1 is intended intended to record record only the period period of active active ,migration migration movement movement in the spring, spring, but it is implied implied that that indiViduals individuals of all all species species listed listed are are summer summer residents. residents. William William H. Rutherford Rutherford Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher May, 1966 �Outdoor Facts Facts , PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE 14 L~. ' COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH FISH and and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO .. ' Number Number 41 RENOVATION OF HABI'TAT AS RENOVATION OF OAKBRUSH OAKBRUSH HABITAT AS A RANGE RANGE IMPROVEMENT PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT PROJECT FOR GAME GAME CLUBS CLUBS 1 1 • Gan-ie Leaflet Gan"le Information Information Leaflet Fig. Fig. 1. 10 Axe- cut cut strip strip through through oakbrush oakbrush first first spring spring after after cutting. cutting. Fig. growth oakbrush portion of Fig. 2. SecondSecond-growth oakbrush in fenced fenced portion an axe-cut axe-cut strip strip showing showing amount amount of growth growth first first year year after cutting. cutting. after Several Several years years ago ago I conducted conducted an an experiment experiment in in the the So, you're you're looking looking for for a worthwhile worthwhile project project for for So, Durango coun1try country to lea learn the amount amount of available available Durango rn if the your your rod rod and gun club? club? Then Then why not sell sell the the memmemoakbrush browse browse could could be increased increased by strip strip cutting. cutting. bers on a project project that that will will both both help help feed feed the the deer deer and oakbrush bers of oakbrush as importance oakbrush as deer deer and and elk elk feed feed elk If The importarnce elk they they like like to hunt hunt and and make make hunting hunting easier? easier? varies in different different parts parts of Colorado, Colorado, depending depending upon upon dense age oakbrush dense stands stands of of tall, tall, overover-age oakbrush comprise comprise aa varies the kinds of other In the amount amount and and kinds other browse browse available. available. a goodly goodly share share of your your winter winter big big game game range, range, then then some particularly the oakbrush some areas, areas, particularly the southwest, southwest, oakbrush look no further. You've further. You've got got a project! project! makes up a large large part part of the diet, not not because because it is is makes the diet, preferred but it preferred but because because it is is the the only only browse browse that that occurs occurs in in ab1.11ndance abundance on some some winter winter ranges. ranges. It is is on such oakbrush that the the type type such p_redomiinantly p.redominantly oakbrush ranges ranges that of would be of project project II am am going going to to describe describe would be most most 11Contribution successful. successful. contribution from 38- R. from Federal Federal Aid Project Project WW-38-R. �In the Durango experiment, experiment, we selected selected an area area of of what I call call "over-age" "over-age" oakbrush oakbrush - brush brush so big and tan tall that most of the browse browse it produces produces is out of of reach reach of of game. We We cut strips strips through this this brush brush twenty feet feet wide, leaving leaving alternate alternate uncut strips strips o! of the same same width. Some Some of of the cutting cutting was done with axes, some with bulldozers, bulldozers, and some with aa Sythete brush brush cutter packed chain saw. Bulldozing cutter -- sort sort of aa backback-packed was done done with with the blade raised raised aa few few inches inches above the ground to break break off off the brush brush at this this point and avoid pulling it out out by the roots. roots. Bulldozing is 'best best done done when the ground ground is is frozen frozen and brush brush brittle. brittle. To learn learn the effects effects of of the the diffei·ent different methods of of cutting, yield plots plots were were established established in cut and uncut strips. strips. Each Each fall for three three years years all all the available available browse browse was clipped from from the plots, plots, weighed and compared. compared. deer deer and elk are are tall tall enough enough to reach reach it. it. But under under the cutting system, system, the felled felled tops of of tb.e the old brush brush as well as as the succulent succulent new new sprouts sprouts corne come within reach reach of of even the smallest smallest browser. browser. old brush brush in lahes lanes or p:atches patches benefits benefits Cutting the old the sportsm3.11 sportsman i11 in other other ways. For For example, example, hunting is aa lot lot easier easier with with lanes lanes opened opened up through through the dense and and tangled cover, cover, and game game is is more readily readily stalked, stalked, seen, seen, shot, and gotten out. As an an additional additional aid aid in determining determining the effects effects of of cutting, cutting, portions portions of of cut cut and and uncut strips strips were were fenced to keep out out game game and livestock, livestock. Also, photographic photographic records records were were made yearly yearly to show show the changes in in both fenced and unfenced, and and cut and uncut plots. plots. By 'So strip By now now you may be thinking, '"So strip cutting cutting is good good for for deer deer and elk. But isn't isn't it pretty pretty expensive?" expensive?" No, No, it it isn't. isn't. Most any sportsmen's sportsmen's club can hack such such a project who can swing project if they have aa few few members members who an axe. axe. And And it needn't needn't cost the cl1,1b club <1-JJ.Y any money at at all if if the members members are ready ready to donate 1:hei theirr sweat sweat and axes. As for for bulldozing, it costs costs the state state exactly exactly $15. 11 per $15.11 per acre acre to bulldoze bulldoze its small small experimental experimental patch. If there skinner in there is aa catcat-skinner in your club, you be able able to talk him into into doing it it for for a lot less less might be say, say, like like gas, oil, and some some recognition. recognition. When When brush brush was axe cut, the trunks trunks were were cut close close to the ground and and the larger larger branches branches lopped off off and and scattered scattered over the ground ground to hold snow a11d and check check e1·osion. erosion. In In conclusion, conclusion, aa word of of caution caution should be given; don't don't furn turn yoUi· your wood wood cho_p_pers choppers 1oose loose until until you've obtained Bureau tained the approval approval of the Forest Forest Serv:ice, Service, the Bureau of Land Land Management, or the private private landowner. landowner. By the end of of the first first growing season season after after cutcutting, sucker growth sucker sprouts sprouts from roots roots and and secondsecond-growth from the cut cut trunks trunks were were thick on on cut strips. strips. RegardRegardless less of the method method of of cutting, yields yields increased increased even as early early as as the first first year year after after cutUng. cutting. For For example, example, as axecut brush produced one axe-cut brush produced one and and aa half times times as as much available browse browse as did uncut brush, brush, and bulldozed available brush brush produced produced over two ancl and a quarter quarter times times as as Moree iniportant, important, yields yields continued continued to increase increase much. Mor for cut brush for axeaxe-cut brush during the following two years, years, so so that by the third cut brush third fall after after cutting, axeaxe-cut brush was producing producing nearly nearly three three and a quarter quarter times times as as much available available browse browse as uncut brush. brush. So, So, when when your game club club members members want to do something about about Colorado's Colorado's winter winter range range problem problem and something increase increase deer deer and elk herds, herds, why why not suggest suggest they away at the problem problem themselves? themselves? get out and hack away deal," you you may say. ''So "So we we can produce produce aa ""Good Good deal,'' lot lot more more brush. brush. But will deer deer and elk eat it?" it?" Sure cattle. Deer Deer and and elk not only they will -- and so will cattle. liked the new new growth, they also also ate most most of of the twigs from the tops of of the brush brush cut cut duringthe during the first first faU fall and winter! In this this way, two good good turns turns are are done for the hungry animals: animals: first, first, you you give give them available available browse browse during the lean months by putting within their their reach reach during the new new twigs at the tips tips of of the cut cut branches. branches. Then Then new sprouting sprouting from old roots roots and comes the abundant new stumps stumps to give give them much more more food food during during the second and and following winters. winters. second As a rule, rule, much of the browse browse on standing standing mature mature brush brush is beyond the reach reach of fawns; only only the older older BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Shepherd, Shepherd, Harold R. 1953. 1953. Emergenc~y Emergency deer deer feeding feeding experiment. experiment. Colo, Colo. Dept. of Game Game and Fish Fish QuarQuarterly t, July. p. 67-69. terly Progress Progress Repor Report, 1954. Emer Emergency deer feedi.ng feeding experiment. experiment. _____ ___ .• 1954. gency deer Colo. Colo. Dept Dept.. of of Game Game and Fish Fish Quarterly Quarterly Progress Progress Report, 178. Report, July. July. p. 173173-178. 1955. Emergency Emergency deer deer feeding feeding e;qJeriment. experiment. -____ - -·. 1955. Colo. Dept. of of Game and Fish Quarterly Quarterly Progress Progress Colo. Report, July. p. 189189-197. Report, 197. ___- - •. 1956. 1956. Browse Browse production production sttlldy. study. Colo. Dept. of Game Game and Fish Fish Quarterly Quarterly Progress Progress Report, Report, July. July. 100. p. 9797-100. 1956. Don't spare spare that oak. oak. Colorado Out- - -· 1956. doors. doors. 5(4):24-26. Harold Harold R. Shepheird Shepherd Researcher Wildlife Researcher July, 1966 1966 �Outdoor Facts t J .Flf·· PUBLISHED USLISH D BY THE nd PA KS DE T COLORADO PARKS DEPT. AO GAME, AM, FISH and 0 Game Garn Infornlation Leaflet t Inforn1.ation Lean Number-42•42 Number MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY Y TRA TRANSPLANTS SCRVJVAL OF TAI 1 MAHOGA SPLA TS SURVIVAL OF MOU LITTLE HILLS EXPERIMENT STATION, TWO SITES, SITES, ON T\VO LITTLE IllLLS EXPERIMENT S 1TATIO COUNTY, COLORADO, 1965 1 RIO BL _ NCO COU -TY, COLORADO, 1965 RIO BLANCO attempt to con1pare compare survival survival of mountain maAn attempt mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) plants plants transplanted hogany (Cercocarpus montanus) transplanted on two sites sites was was made made in 1965 at at the the Little Hills Little Hills Experiment Station. Four Four deerdeer-proof, but not Experiment Station. proof, but not rodentrodentproof, woven woven wire wire exclosures. exclosures were constructed; proof, were constructed; two were location and and two were near a were in a bottomland bottom land location were near ridge top. top. One exclosure exclosure of each each pair was on a burned burned ridge pair was area (both burns burns occurred occurred in July, July, 1962) and the the other other area was on an unburned area. was unburned a.rea. All forbs in each each exclosure, exclosure, except those those in in one one All forbs except exclosure (Num (Number described below), removed exclosure ber 4, described below), were were removed prior to plantingo Thirty-two, four four-year-old, nurseryprior to planting. Thirty-two, - year- old, nuxserystock, mountain mountain mahogany mahogany plants plants were were tagged tagged and and stock, planted 18 inches inches apart apart in each each exclosure. exclosure. planted One half half of the the plants plants (wit! (Witll, odd-numbered tags) were were provided provided odd- numbered tags) of. quart of water water and the the other other half evenone q_uart half (with (with evennumbered tags) rreceived none. numbered tags) eceived none. The following are brief brief descriptions descriptions of each each exexThe followin cr are closure site: site: closure Exclosure Situated on a gentle, gentle, sloping, sloping, unburned unburned Exclosure 1 - Situated bottom-type with with a ssoutherly aspect. . The soil is is of an bottom-type outherly aspect The soil alluvial, coarsecoarse-textured occurs alluvial, textured type type that that commonly commonly occurs or near mouths of steep, sloping gulches. gulches. The at or near the mouths steep, sloping The dominant vegetat vegetation is sagebrush tridentadominant ion is sagebrush (Artemisia (Artemisia tridentat!), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), greasegreaseta), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), wood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), and cheatgrass cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). (Bromus tectorum). (Amelanchier alnifolia), snowberry snowberry (Symphoricarpos (Amelanchier alnifolia), (Symphoricarpos spp.), mountain mountain mahogany mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), spp.), (Cercocarpus ledifolius), and bitterbrush bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). A variety (Purshia tridentata). variety of grasses and and forbs forbs also also occurs. grasses occurs. Exclosure 4 to Exclosure Exclosure 3 except except that that it it is Exclosure 4. - Similar Similar to is the bottom bottom of a shallow shallow moderately moderately sloped sloped gully gully on in the area and and has has a southerly southerly aspect. aspect. Most Most of the the burned area a burned original vegetation vegetation was was removed removed by fire. fire. A good stand original good stand yellow sweetclover sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis), Indian of yellow (Melilotus officinalis), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), , and various ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) and various wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.) is is present, present, partially partially wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.) reseeding. due to reseeding. Survival of tbe the transplants transplants was checked checked in July, July, Survival was and was was found found to poorest in the excloto be be poorest the lower lower exc1o1966, and sures; 56 and and 25 percent percent in Exclosures and 2, rere'sures; Exclosures 1 and spectively (Table 1). Nearly one-half of the the plants plants in spectively (Table Nearly one-half Exclosure 2 were missing. Much Much pocket pocket gopher gopher activExclosure were missing. activity evident there, there, and and most most of these plants were were ity was was evident these plants probably eaten eaten or or buried buried by them, them, or or both. Most of probably both. Most the living plants plants were were in generally generally poor poor condition. condition. the living About survival was found in About 97 percent percent survival was found in Exclosures Exclosures 3 and near the ridge top. Most plants appeared in and 4 near the ridge top. Most plants appeared good condition condition in both both the the burned burned and areas. good and unburned unburned areas. l1 Bottom S.Otu,~ No. of plants: ol pl&nl;a,; :ro. Exclosure 2 - Similar Similar to to Exclosure Exclosure 1 except except that it is is Exclosure that it burned area area and has has a northerly aspecto on a burned no rtherly aspect. .... Dead 18 _ ,_ ....!L percentage Survival Svrviv-&l p~TC.ClUt"Al;C: ~ of wi::erod watered plants alive No • .of p! .1nl-• uU~·t: of unwatcrcd alive or UJfll;II.C't'cd plants phnu ali ~e. _ g_ Rodent: -O"t:' or r;1.bWt rabbit use on: Live 1!,od,Qt. u.:n;. Qlt; I.{\tu plants pt...nh Dead plants f 1)-..d planL ' -',. ...lL ....!.L Alive (\.live No. No. ""· Situated on a moderately moderately sloping, Exclosure Exclosure 3 - Situated sloping, ununburned ridge area with aspect. burned ridge top top area with a southwesterly southwestel'ly aspect. The soil soil is is of a moderately moderately deep which The deep loamy loamy type type which contains moderate moderate amounts amounts of sand sand and and gravel. graveL The The contains dominant overstory overstory vegetation vegetation is is pinon pinon pine pine and and junijunidominant per. Common understory shrubs are per. Common understory shrubs are serviceberry serviceberry Contribution from Federal Aid Project Project W-98-D. 1 Contribution from Federal W-98- D. Unburned IJJ1 bUt'nGd No. No. of -vlllJ:IJ..I: plants ~inij missing of" 18 ~ , I• -·- _0_ Exclosure No. S'u:lo•ur~ ~o. 2 33 Bottom Ridge Bot.tCIIII Rtds;<1 Burned Unburned Unburrncd !urntd ' • 8 • Ridge Rids.a:: Burned Uu.~ni,d _,_ _, _ -_,_·31 , i )31 1 ~i!S,O ~ JLJ! _!l:_Q _,_ ' -'_,,_ --'-'-- ...!L --'"-'-• -'- -·- ....!L ....lL. 3 1 _3_ _ ,4_ ....!L ,. '6 ~ 16 .....bL 21 21 _ l_ 8 _0_ - ·- -·- _0_ _0_ Table !.--Survival l,--Survival mahogany transplants transplants Table of mountain mountain mahogany at Little Little Hills Hills Experiment Experiment Station, Station, 1966. at �Varying degrees degrees of of rodent rodent and and rabbit rabbit use were were noted in all exclosures. o be diexclosures, This use appeared appeared tto rectly rectly responsible responsible for the death of of one one plant and was probably probably a contributing contributing factor factor in the failure failure of of others. others, No No evident differences differences in survival survival or vigor could be associated associated with the watered watered plants plants at transplanting transplanting time. time. Rather, Rather, the greatest greatest differences differences were found found between ridge top and and bottomland bottomland sites. sites, Gross Gross examinasuch exclosure exclosure leads leads us to suspect suspect that the tion of such success success differential differential between areas areas was probably probably due due primarily primarily to edaphic edaphic conditions. conditions. Fig. 3--Mountain Exclosure 3--Mountain mahogany transplant transplant in Exclosure No. top. No, 3, located located on on unburned ridgeridge-top. Fig. 1--Mountain mahogany transplant in Exclosure No. 1, located on unburned bottomland. This is the most vigorous plant remaining in the bottomland transplant areas. Fig. Fig, 4--Mountai. 4--Mountainn mahogany transplant transplant in Exclosure Exclosure No. plant No, 4, located located on ridge-top ridge-top burned burned in 1962. This plant is idge- top areas. is typical typical of of those transplanted transplanted in the rridge-top areas. Fig. 2--Mountain 2--Mountain mahogany transplant transplant in Exclosure Exclosure No. No.2,2, located located on on bottomland bottomland burned burned in 1962. 1962. Plant Plant was eaten eaten off by rabbits rabbits and buried buried by gophers; gophers; parpartially tially exposed (end (end of of ruler) ruler) for photo purposes. purposes. Williaj'Il T. McKean Willialll Researcher Wildlife Researcher and Richard M. M. Bartmann Bartmann Richard Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate Candidate July, 1966 1966 �Outdoor Facts [-'q .. PUBLISHED BY THE VT COLORADO GAME, FISH and PARKS DEPT. G ARK D PT , Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 43 Number43 A TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE FOR MAPPING MAPPING WILDLIFE WILDLIFE A FOR HABITAT IN IN FARMLA FARMLANDD AREAS HABITAT AREAS 11 manager or biologist biologist often must must preThe wildlife manager prepare maps for graphic graphic illustration illustration of of pertinent pertinent inpare formation. Usually these these are are reconnaissance formation. reconnaissance maps uses, cover types and/ and/or showing land uses, or other land I.and features. There are a variety variety of techniques tools features. There are techniques and tools applicable to this this type of of work (Mosby, (Mosby, 1960) 1960) but care care applioable should be used in choosing those best best suited suited for the job. Aerial photos frequently frequently can serve serve as a nucleus Aerial A.S.C.S. or other for cover mapping. Usually S.C.S., A.S.C.S. carry complete sets sets of photos for public agencies agencies carry their districts. these but will allow their districts. They seldom loan these information to be copied from from the photos at their their information offices. Often they have light tables tables available available to aid in this work. If a large large number of sections sections are are to be mapped it may be time saving to devise devise a form for categorizing categorizing acreages per section. The information information the cover type acreages per section. quickly condensed for final summarizasummarizacan then be quickly L illustrates illustrates the graphic graphic information information obtion. Fig. 1. inspection of the tained from an aerial aerial photo and field inspection section. section. Section 28, T.6 T.6 ff., N., R.48 R.48 W. Section W. 12• 12' Rye recommended that that section section and field boundIt is recommended aries, roads, roads, drainages, drainages, and/ and/or features on the aries, or other features first be transferred transferred to graph paper. photo first paper. This can then be taken to the field where cover types, types, crop information can be placed on onthe types and other information the map. Field boundaries, boundaries, which change frequently, frequently, often must Field measured in the field. The graph squares squares aid in be measured proper placement placement of of such data on the map. proper Aerial photos usually are scaled scaled so that either either 4 Aerial usually are inches or 8 inches equal l1·mile. ·mile. The graph paper paper thus facilitates of acreages. acreages. To illustrate, illustrate, a facilitates calculation calculation of of 44 inches equal 1 mile transferred transferred to photo scale sea.le of graph paper paper containing 10 10 squares squares per per inch permits permits graph an acreage acreage calculation calculation as follows: square mile 640 acres acre per per 1 square _ 640 acres _ 0.4 acre 2 - 1600 (40 graph squares) squares)21600 squares square or (40 squares square 2.5 graph sq.= sq.= acre 1 acre Fallow Pallc,y SCALE SCALE Inches 4 lncbea 2.44 Graph sq sq.. 2. 111 B 1 l Mile llile Acre l1 Acre g KEY KEY Fence .Pence Cover Bounda.ry Cover :Boundar,y 12' --....,._ ... ---- - Edge Cover Cover Width Width Edge Intermittant Stream Intermittaat Stream 1\ Fig. L Features on on this section section map were were transposed 1. Features transposed aerial photo. Cover types and other informainforma~ from an aerial tion were obtained in the field. field. REFERENCE: REFERENCE: A detailed detailed conversion conversion table can be developed using ratio as a basis, basis. The same same principle principle can be the above ratio aerial photos and graph paper paper of different different, applied to aerial scales. (1960) illustrated illustrated and discussed discussed equipscales. Mosby (1960) size of the map from that of ment used to change the size the original original photo. :!contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-37-R 1contribution Mosby, H. H. S. S. 1960. 1960. Manual of Game Investigational Investigational Techniques. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C. 20:3 20:3 Chpt. Warren D. Snyder Warren D. Assistant Wildlife Rese~cher Researcher Assistant 1966 August, 1966 �Outdoor Facts J. ,Jif pPUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO COIORAO ,d PARKS GAME, FISH and E F1S DEPT. -P • Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet Number ·4 4 Number'44 "DEER MIRRORS"-DO MIRRORS" - DO THEY THEY WORK? WORK? l1 "DEER How important important is the deer-vehicle deer-vehicle collision probHow collision probfollowing statistics are are incredible lem? The foll owing statistics incredible enough no further further explanation. The loss to need no loss of deer, deer, both reported and estimated, estimated, in 45 45 states states during 1964 1964 was reported 87,927 deer. average estimated estimated repair repair bill bill was 87,927 deer. The average $241 per per vehicle, vehicle, or a total total estimated estimated repair repair bill of $241 Nine fatalities fatalities and 770injuriestodrivers 770 injuries to drivers $21,190,404. Nine and passengers were reported reported during during this this same passengers were period. period. there has been much publicity publicity In recent recent months there concerning the Van Van de Ree "Deer-Mirrors" "Deer-Mirrors" or concerning "Dutch Reflectors." ''Dutc.h Reflectors.' ' These "mirrors," ' ' mirrors," in theory, theory, reflect the headlight beam away away from the roadway reflect deer that that is ready to cross and into the eyes of any deer cross highway. The mirror supposedly supposedly the highway. Tha flash from the mirror freezes the degr deer in its its tracks tracks until until the vehicle has freezes passed, thus preventing preventing another another deerdeer-auto collision. passed, auto collision. A - Post Post is is located located SSECTION ::cTION A. 10 feet from edge or of high),-.y highway feat. hoc mirror set to flash mat -_ ==d.rror !iat. ta fi.a.sh away fro.ta from line of traffic. away l1ne o! t.r...tfic. Mirrors set .at at hei height H1.rrors $at. g_ht to be needed for p-arUcu1ar particular a.raa area needed far the flash ~ will cova:r. cover. tho n-.sh < < < < > Reflection Rafiec.tion < Posts are &et. set 100 100 Pos ts u-o feet apart faot aput. ) SECTION Postt- is located SEC'tl OM B -_ Po.s 1& lc,e11.ted 10 feet from edgo edge of !aet. !'r-o1:11 of highway < < mat sot to Cl.a.sh flash iut -_ mirror m::lrror sot across 1.1n-o line of traffic. ar:r0$5 or traffic, Mirrors set set J4 34 inche.s inches ;.bo-ve above Mirrors the ground. ground. tho > ) gathered previous years indicates < Since data ga thered in p1·evious years indicates < that there there is an extremely extremely large deer-auto that large number of deer-auto )> accidents in Colorado, plans were were formulated accidents formulated to determine if the mirrors mirrors had any lessening lessening effect on termine Reflection Rerlection deer-auto accidents. The Colorado Dethe number of deerauto accidents. )> partment of of Highways Highways and the Colorado State Patrol Patrol partment were very very interested interested in this this project. U.S. Highway 6 project. U.S. Highway and 24 24 between Rifle and Grand Valley was picked for Van de Ree deerdeer-mirror installation used in the study. The Highway Highway Department Department furnished furnished two Fig. 1. Van mirror installation Colorado, 1965. 1965. posts and also furnished a Colorado, men to help put up the posts also furnished large sign to be placed at each end of area large of the study area informing the motoring test section section on on informing motoring public that a test deer-highway crossing devices was ahead of of deer - highway cr ossing safety safety devices Patrol has assisted assisted in patrolling patrolling the them. The State Patrol: area vandalism at a minimum. area to keep vandalism area chosen for the study is sparsely sparsely Since the area vegetated, with only only sagebrush sagebrush and greasewood greasewood near near vegetated, the highway, highway, the mirrors mirrors were were placed placed 100 100 feet apart apart of the highway. highway. Placement Placement was altered on each side side of altered there was a mirror mirror every every from side to side so that there 50 feet along the highway highway {Figure (Figure 1) 1).. 50 ck Nut DoubleMirror and Faste Fastenin Double Mirror and 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-38-R. contributioa f;rom W-38- R. Stra: assembly used in Fig. 2. Van de Ree deer-mirror deer-mirror assembly Colorado, 1965. 1965. �The The State Patrol Patrol was concerned concerned about about the flash flash across across the highway highway from from the mirrors, mirrors, as it related related to stopping deer, deer, so the area area was divided into two sections for test, test, each one one and one-quarter one-quarter miles miles in in length. length. In one one section section mirrors mirrors were placed so they flashed flashed the light light across across the line line of of traffic, traffic, while mirrors mirrors in in the second section section flashed flashed the light away away from the line line of of traffic traffic (Figure (Figure 1). 1). In In the test test section section where they were uniformly uniformly set set 34-inches 34-inches above above the ground, the mirrors mirrors flashed flashed across across the line line of of traffic. traffic. The other other test test area area had had mirrors mirrors that were set set individually, individually, with the flash flash covering covering the immediate immediate area area around the mirror; mirror; thus some some mirrors mirrors were set set at ground ground level level and some were inches above the ground. were 6060-inches this recomthis study we hope to be able to make definite recommendations mendations... Data gathered gathered in the study area area for the first first year year of the study show that ten deer deer were were killed killed in the mirror mirror area area in 1965. 1965. Eight were were killed killed in the same same area area in 1964, 1964, fourteen fourteen killed killed in 1963 1963 and 30 killed in 1H62. 1962. These These fatalities fatalities compare compare with 43, 39, 15 15 and and 45 45 deer deer killed in the control control area area (without (without mirrors) mirrors) in 1965, 1965, 1964, 1964, 1963 1963 and 1962, 1962, respectively. respectively. Raymond J. Boyd Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, 1966 1966 The 260 260 double double mirror mirrorss (Figure (Figure 2) 2) cost $1.35 each, making a total total mirror mirror cost of of $351.00. Steel posts which supported supported the mirrors mirrors cost $286.00; $286.00; nuts and bolts cost another another $4.00, for aa total total cost of of material material used in the two half mile study area two and oneone-half area of of $641.00. $641.00. If If the mirrors mirrors prevent prevent three three accidents, accidents, they will theoretically theoretically pay for themselves. themselves. There r oblems There have been some maintenance maintenance pproblems associated with the project. project. It It became became necessary necessary to associated mow mow and spray spray the roadside roadside grass grass and clover clover so that the vegetation vegetation would would not hide the mirrors. mirrors. Reflectors Reflectors need need polishing polishing every three three or four months to remove remove road film. Do Do the mirrors mirrors work? Do Do they reduce reduce nighttime nighttime deer-auto accidents? It is much too early early to make aa deerauto accidents? 4. The Colorado Colorado State Patrol Patrol and the Department Department statement statement concerning concerning their their effectiveness. effectiveness. The The study study Fig. 4, Highways cooperated cooperated in the study. is designed designed to extend three three years. years. Upon Upon conclusion conclusion of of of Highways A view of of the study study area, area, showing mirror mirror posts in place:----~-Fig. 3. A place. -- �~_~C~~-·~~~~:;;··J ~~~ ~~/(/ • ". ,#' COLORADO PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF OF WILDLIFE WilDLIFE DIVISION I Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet lo !~ y. . • ' .....• ". - .. \ .. Number 45 Number 45 MERRIAM'S TURKEY ROOST PRE PREFERENCES ~rfERRTAM'S T U RKEY ROOST FE RE CBS ON MOUNTAI MOUNTAIN 0 RANGES I1 RANGES concerned with measurement of site factors, factors, physconcerned measurement of characteristics, and use. Jonas, Jonas, 1964, 1964, reported reported ical characteristics, on average sizes of of 26 26 ponderosa on average sizes ponderosa pines used as Merriam's turkey turkey roosting roosting trees and listed listed percent Merriam's trees and percent slopes for 26 sites in Montana. slopes 26 sites SCOPE SCOPE Measurements were secured on 149 149 individual Measurements secured on roosting trees trees in nine winter winter sites sites and on 41 41 individroosting roosting trees trees in seven summer sites within the ual roosting summer sites Peaks area area during the period 1963 through Spanish Peaks period 1963 1966. Final Final analysis analysis of data, interpretation interpretation of of results, 1966. results , and write-up of a final report are still still in progress. progress. and write-up of report are therefore, preliminary nature and This report report is, is, therefore, preliminary in nature characteristics of deals primarily primarily with physical physical characteristics of sites and trees. rroosting oosting sites trees. L A winter winter roosting site in Sarcillo Sarcillo Canyon Canyon conFig. 1. roosting site taining overmature overmature and and dead ponderosa taining ponderosa pine, white fir, and and Douglas fir fir trees. Elevation 7,800 feet. fir, trees. Elevation of groves of of tall, tall, overmature overmature The preservation preservation of ponderosa of sawlog size size which have histories ponderosa pines of histories of use by wild turkeys turkeys has long been a prime of prime consideration in Colorado's Colorado's management of of the species. species. sideration Several individuals including Ligon, Ligon, 1946, 1946, and and Several Burget, 1957,have described Merriam's Merriam's turkey turkey roosts roosts Burget, 1957, have described in general general terms; terms; however, few few studies studies have been 2. A A summer summer roosting site in Tracy Tracy Canyon, Fig. 2. roosting site Canyon, San Forest,consisting of of overmature overmature ponIsabel National Forest,consisting ponderosa pine in park-like site. Elevation 8,600 8,600 feet. derosa park-like site. 1lContribution Project W-37-R. contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project W-37-R, 11 �FINDINGS FINDINGS A A comparison comparison of of specific specific characteristics characteristics as size, size, vegetation apd 3;nd sites, sites, understor understories, trees, , V'egetation ies, number of trees elevation, elevation, slope, exposure, exposure, access, access, and and ownership of of land for the nine winter and and seven summer summer roosting roosting sites are are listed listed in Table 2. 2. sites Because Because of of its nature, nature, most of the information information is presented presented in tabular tabular form. form. Table 11 lists lists general general information on all roosting roosting sites sites measured measured to date. formation Nine Nine winter winter sites, sites, three three temporary temporary winter winter sites, sites, and seven summer summer sites sites were located located and measured. measured. A comparison eristics, includcomparison of specific specific charact characteristics, averages and ranges ranges where applicable, applicable, as number number ing averages of trees trees by species, species, trunk diameters diameters (d.b.h.), heights, heights, percent percent crowns, shape of tops, age classes, classes, and and estiestimated ages for 149 149 roosting roosting trees trees on the nine winter winter sites and 41 41 roosting roosting trees trees on the seven summer summer sites sites sites are listed listed in Table 3. are Figure Figure 11 shows a winter winter roosting roosting site site location in the Sarcillo Sarcillo Canyon Canyon area area and Figure Figure 2 shows aa sumsummer roosting roosting site site location location in Tracy Tracy Canyon. Canyon. The study mer area location location including approximate approximate map locations locations of of area roosts measured measured is shown in Figure Figure 3. all roosts ..' I ,, -= = =·:C.. '='-= - --L,-"11·'·~r-" .,. I · , .' ,,,rm • Ut w •• • j ! T511i J:' ' ~ ~ I ~.,..1..1 = ~ ~,.c....i V ,., I ~+A·__, n~ I ' ; ,,.,, , I ' r ~-•-.. J ~ I -1t ~ l• ~ v ,, 110 ( 1 ~ N . µ~ U·· · ~ _.:.-. , ; ;. ~ .... ~ . l. (. . . ~i~~ - . ,--~¥- '. t,✓, \ r u.l--. • , ... 1 : ~ .1 :-~~:,-~. _,. J • ,;i,,, . . -- .-.1 ~ ~~ X I , 1f:~_ "=~ r-~ • '- , -- -~"} r ~ •l ,:11':, r / ~ , ·_ ._ - • ~~ .~ , -. :- ~ ., ,r .:.- ~-(i "· . . -. r f"", ~ -·- ;~~k;_:~ 7-~ : LJ;;._?~~7E~- ~,_.:: -~·~ j_ ~.;::· "' . Key: Key: • \'linter \'/'inter site site () () Temporary Temporary.vinter winter site site o Q Fig. 3. Location of study area area and roosting roosting sites. sites. 2 1 . 'I' r» s. .:'J_, ~ .:~~ !~½~t: ~-~·,... ,,. Sur.aner site Sunnnersite �Gan1.e Information Leaflet Game Informati on Lea fl t Table 1.--Seaso l.--Seasonal Table Type Number 45 Number 45 site characteristics characteristics of Merriam's Merriam's turkey areas. site turkey roosting roosting areas. (%) Size Size (Acres) (Acres) Number Number trees used used trees period and period sS 15 15 ..75 75 44(1963-64) 44(1963-64) 8,200 R,200 NW NW 25 2.00 9(1963-64) 9(196364) 8,250 E 10 1.50 13(1964-65) 13(1964-65) 7,600 E 21 .50 16(1963-64) 16(1963-64) 8,100 E 8 2.00 10(1965-66) J.0(1965-66) 8,000 NW NW 35 ..75 75 9(1964-65) 9(1964-65) 8,000 E 10 ,75 .75 4(1963-64) 4(1963-64) 7,800 sS 15 15 1.00 13(1963-64) 13(196364) 7,900 E 25 4, 50 4.50 31(1963-64) 31(1963-64) 18 1.50 17 17 Drainage Drainage and County Elevation Elevation (ft.) Exposure Exposure Creek, Abbotts Creek, Animas Las Animas Bear Creek, reek, Bear Huerfano Huerfano Copper Coppe • King Gulch, Huerfano Huerfano Mavricio Canyon, Mavricio Las Animas Animas Las Middle Cre Creek, Middle ek, Huerfano Huer fano North Trujillo Creek, Creek, North Trujillo Las Animas Las Animas Santa Clara Clara Creek, Santa Creek Huerfano Huerfano Sarcillo Canyon, Sarcillo Las Animas Animas Las Sarcillo Canyon, Sarcill.o Las Animas Las Animas MEAN 8,300 8, 300 Slope WINTER 8,000 TEMPORARY WINTER East Indian Indian Creek, Creek, East Huerfano Huerfano Huerfano River, River, Huerfano Huerfano Huerfano Creek, Middle Creek, Huerfano Huerfano MEAN 7,700 N 10 .125 2(1963-64) 2(196364) 8,500 N N 10 ..125 125 3(1963-64) 3(1963-64) 7,600 SW SW 15 15 .125 2(1963-64) 2(1963-64) 12 12 .125 .1 25 2 7,950 SUMMER SUMMER Bear Creek Creek, Bear Huerfano Huerfano Middle Creek, Creek, Middle Huerfano Huerfano North Fork, North Fork, Las Animas Animas Las Oak Creek, Creek, Huerfano Huerfano Spring Creek, Spring Creek, Huerfano Huerfano Spring Creek, Creek, Spring Huerfano Huerfano Tracy Canyon, Tracy Huerfano Huerfano MEAN 8,600 'N w 5 .50 4(1966) 4(1966} 8,400 NE 19 19 .25 8(1966) 8,950 NE NE 16 16 .50 6(1964) 8,100 E 7 .125 2(1965) 8",850 a· , a50 SE 23 .50 11(1964) 11(1964) 9,200 sS 23 .75 7(1965) 7 1965) 8,600 8, 600 sS 10 .125 3(1965) 15 16 .50 6 8,650 3 �Table oosting siites. Table 2. A A comparison comparison of characteristics characteristics of of winter winter and and summer summer rroosting sites. Summer Summer Sites Sites (Seven &asured) (Seven M Measured) Winter Sites Sites (Nine (Nine Measured) Measured) SIZE SIZE Averaged 1/ 1/22 acre acre andl and ranged ranged from from 1/ 1/88 to 3/ 3/44 acre. acre. Averaged Averaged 11 1/2 1/2 acres acres and ranged ranged from from 1/ 1/22 to 44 1/2 1/2 acres. acres. VEGETATIONANDSITES VEGETATION AND SITES Most (eight) sit.es unevenaged stands sites were were in unevenaged stands of of tall, tall, overmature overmature ponderosa ponderosa pines. Of Of these these eight sites, sites, five were in open, open, parkpark- like sites sites and three three were were in relatively relatively dense mixtures mixtures of of ponderosa ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, fir, and white fir fir along the sides sides of steep steep rocky canyons. Most (six) sites sites were were in in unevenaged stands stands of tall, tall, overmature overmature ponderosa ponderosa pine in in open, Jpark-like park-like stands. stands. One One site site was aa grove of old narrowlea.d narrowlead cottonwoods along aa canyon bottom. One site site was a grove of old white fur along aa canyon bottom with aspen, aspen, Douglas fir, fir, and and aa few few ponderosa ponderosa pine intermixed. intermixed. UNDERSTORIES UNDERSTORIES Much the same same as as found found in winter winter sites, sites, with the Much addition addition of kinnikinnick. Gambel's Gambel's oak, mow1tain mountain mahogany, New New Mexican locust, locust, snowberry, snowberry, aspen, aspen, young ponderosa ponderosa pine and and various various grass grass species species were were commonly found in the understories. understories. NUMBER OF TREES NUMBEROF Averaged 6 trees trees. trees and ranged ranged from from 2 to U 11trees. Averaged trees and ranged Averaged 17 17trees ranged from from 44 to 44 44 trees. trees. ELEVATION ELEVATION Averaged 8,650 feet and ranged from 8,100 8,100 to 9,200 feet. feet. Averaged 8,000 8,000 feet and ranged ranged from 7,600 to 8,300 8,300 Averaged feet. feet. SLOPE SLOPE Averaged 18 18 percent percent and ranged ranged from 88 to 35 35 percent. percent~ Averaged 15 percent and ranged from t.o 23 percent. 15percent from 55 to percent. EXPOSURE EXPOSURE Two Two sites sites faced faced northeast, northeast, two south,, south, and one east, east, southeast, and wes west. southeast, t. sites faced east, east, two south, south, and two two northwest. northwest. Five sites All had good good or or excellent excellent protection protection from from westerly westerly winds. ACCESS ACCESS sites bad had either either an an open open ridge ridge or or rocky ledge All sites nearby nearby for ease ease of of birds birds in flying into the roosting roosting trees. trees. All All sites sites bad had aa ridge ridge nearby nearby for ease ease of birds birds in flying into the voosting roosting trees. trees. OWNERSHIPOF LAND OF LAND OWNERSHIP Three Three sites sites were were located on privately privately owned owned land, three three sites sites were were located located on on San Isalbel Isabel National National Forest Forest lands, and one site site was own,ed owned by the City of Trinidad. Trinidad. sites were were located located on privately privately owned owned land and Eight sites one was on the Spanish Peaks Peaks Management Area Area which was purchased purchased by the Department Department of of Grune, Game, Fish and Parks Parks in 1965. 1965. Fish 44 �procedures Grieb, 19 1957, procedures outlined by Grieb, 57, was made to determine differences in diameters diameters (d.b.h.) and te r mine if the differences heights by indicated indicated degrees of use heights degrees of us e was ssignificant. ignificant. No significance significance was found found at the 95 percent level. level. No 95 percent have resulted resulted from an This lack of ssignificance ignificance may bave insufficient number of of ssamples class; insufficient amples for each use clas s; differences in mean diameters however, the differences diameters and heights between the four use classes classes were small. were small. Thus, factors factors other other than diamete diameters r s and heights heights apparently cause cause the birds select certain parently birds to select certain individual trees and certain roosting sites sites rather rather trees certain portions portions of roosting consistently. consistently. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION The various various roosting roosting sit sites clases located have been classified as winter, winter, temporary winter, or ssummer sites sified temporary winter, ummer sites accordiI1g to the main periods periods of of use. use. Many winter winter according sites bave have some use during the summer periods periods but sites tbe summer this normally much less less than the amount of of winter winter this is normally use. The three winter sites sites are are those used three temporary temporary winterwinter of of 19631963-64 in the winter 64 when small small flocks used either groves groves of narrowleaf cottonwoods or pinon either narrowleaf cottonwoods pines in areas areas below their their normal normal wintering wintering grounds, pines because of the adverse adverse weather conditions.. SUmmer Summer because of weather conditions sites are are normally short periods sites normally used for rrelatively elatively short periods during the spring spring, summer, summer, and early early fall periods. periods. during of Merriam's Merriam's turkeys are known known to summe summerr Some of turkeys are 10,600 ffeet area. at elevations elevations up to 10,600 e et within the study area. highest roosting found to date, hpweve however, The highest roosting ssite ite found r , is approximately 1). Bi Birds appr oximately 9,200 feet (Table 1). r ds ssummering ummering areas are are thought to us usee whichever in these these higher higher areas whichever suitable species species of trees trees is available available such as Engelsuitable spruce, bristlecone pine, or aspen. mann spruce, bristlecone pine Information Ob on indicated degrees degrees of us usee of of all inInformation winter roosts roosts according dividual trees trees used as winter according to the accumulated droppings was secured secured durduramounts of accumulated analysis of variance variance, according according to An analysis ing the study. An Table 3.3.--A comparison of of characteristics characteristics of of winter winter and summer summer roosting roosting trees trees11 -A comparison Species Species Winter Hinter: Roosting Roostipg Trees Trees (149 measured) measured) (14.9 Summer SU111111er Roosting Roosting Trees Trees (41 measured) measu-i::ed) Pipo Pipo Psme Psme Abco Abco Potr Pot:r Poan Poan Pipo Pipo Abco Abco Poan Poan No. of Trees Trees d.b.h. (inches) d.b . h. ~inchesl range mean range me an Height {feet2 (feet) Height mean range mean range 120 12 10 10 21. 5 20.5 20.5 45-100 45100 50-85 5085 60-85 6085 40-55 40SS 50-55 5055 ·68.2 68. 2 50-105 50- 10 5 70.00 70. 65.0 65- 65 65.0 5 2 38 1 2 21. 9 21..9 10.0-39.5 10.039 . .5 15.5-25.5 15 . 5- 25.5 15.5-34.5 15.534.5 9.0 88.0. 0- 9.0 23.5-27.5 23.527.S 12.5-35·.5 12. 5- 35. S 24.0 34.8 34 .8 32.0-37.5 32 . 0- 37.S 25.9 25.9 8.55 8. 25.5 25 .S 71.33 71. 66.1 66.1 69.2 69.2 49 ..0 49.0 52.5 S2.S Crown ~eercen (percent) Crown t2 mean range mean range 62.3 62.3 85.9 85.9 71.1 71.l Shape tope Shaee of to (number of of trees) (number trees) 25~90 25-90 70-95 7095 66-95 66- 9S 33d; Slro; 51ro; 31£0; 31£0; 5po 6d; 3ro; 3po Ire; 1£0 8d; lro; lfo 40-90 40-90 28ro; 3d; 28ro; 2fo 70.7 70.7 93.0 93.0 4po 3fo; 4po 2ro 2i::o Ponaerosa Pi Pine Ponoerosa ne only only Age Age C1as~/ Clas~/ overmature overmature mature mature dead dead of winter winter No. of roosting trees roosting trees 111 summer No. of of summer roosting trees roosting trees 2 7 14 Estimated age, years Estimated years Winter roosting roosting trees Summer roosting Winter ti::ees Sul!lller roo s ting trees crees aged) (26 aged) aged) (70 aged} {26 mean range mean range 111ean range mean range 165 111-230 165 111-230 160 95-230 9S230 22 2 J./ Key to abbreviations : Species Pipo - ponderosa pine (Pinus eonderosa) Psme Douglas fir (Pseudo t suga tnenziesii) Abco - White fir (Abies concolor) Potr - aspen {Poeulus tremuloides) Poan - narrowleaJ cut tonwood (Popu lus angustifolia} ]I Dunning's tree classes for ponderosa pine (Westwel d, 1939). 5 Shape of top Sbapr. tbp dead d -- dead round, open open ro -- t:ound, flat, open open fo -- nae, pointed, open po -- pointed, ope.n po l1po �SUMMARY SUMMARY Groves of of tall, tall, overmature overmature ponderosa ponderosa pines in sheltered sheltered locations locations within the winter winter range are are prepreferred ferred by Merriam' Merriam's s turkeys turkeys on mountain ranges ranges for winter winter period period roosting roosting sites. sites. Most summer summer roosting roosting sites sites located located were very similar similar in in appea1·ance appearance to the winter winter roosting roosting sites, sites, but wer weree found found at higher higher elevations elevations for the most most part, part, were were of smaller smaller area, area, and contained contained fewer fewer nwnbers numbers of of roosting roosting trees. trees. Jonas, Jonas, Robert Robert JJ.. 1964. 1964. Population Population dynamics dynamics and ecology ogy of Merriam's Merriam's turkey. turkey. Job Completion Report Project Project W-91-R-6. W-91-R-6. Montana Fish Fish and Game DeDepartment. 33. partment. Mimeo., p. 3232-33. Ligon, J. stokely. Stokely. 1946. 1946. History History and management management of of Merriam's Merriam's wild turkey. turkey. New New Mexico Game and Fish Fish Comm., p, p. 11. 11. Westveld, Westveld, R. R. H. 1939. 1939. Applied silviculture silviculture in the United States. States. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New New York., p. 466467. 466-467. REFERENCES CITED CITED Burget, Burget, Martin Martin L. 1957. 1957. The wild turkey turkey in in Colorado. Colorado. Federal 39-R. Colorado Department Federal Aid Aid Project Project WW-39-R. Department of of Game and Fish, Fish, Denver, Denver. p, p. 11. 11. Donald Donald M. Hoffman Hoffman Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, 1966 1966 Reprinted Reprinted April, April, 1979 Grieb, Grieb, Jack Jack R. 1957. 1957. Wildlife statistics. statistics. Federal Federal Aid Division, Colorado Colorado Game and Fish Fish Department, Department, Denver. 77p. 77p. 6 �OL1tdoo Outdoor~ Facts Facts PUBLISHED r.L I d' r;--o PUBLISHED BY THE BY THE COLORADO GAME GAME,, FISH a and PARKS COLORADO nd PA R KS DEPT. l . 4t • ." Number umber 46 Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet FIELDD METHODS FOR DETERMI DETERMINATION FIEL METHODS FOR ATIO OF SEX SEX AND AND AGE AGE OF OF MOUR MOURNING DOVES 1 1 OF I G DOVES .- -- ~ Don Domenick Photo by Don L A very young young dove dove exhibiting the white tipping of of feathers, especially on the wings, characteristic characteristic of Fig. 1. feathers, especially young of of the year year birds. birds. As numbers numbers of hunters increase increase from from year year As year to year habitat either either decreases decreases or is renand/ or wildlife habitat rendered less less productive, productive, we must become more specific specific dered knowledge concerning concerning wildlife resources. resources. in our knowledge In order to manage any any species efficiently, it beorder species most efficiently, effects of of mortality mortality comes necessary necessary to measure measure effects factors on the various various sex and age groups within a factors population rather rather than on the population as a whole. Thus, development of techniques techniques to age and sex sex wildimportant. For For game birds birds, , espeespelife becomes becomes very important. 11Contribution Federal Aid Aid Project Project WW-88-R. contribution from Federal 88- R. cially migratory migratory game birds, desirable to find cially birds, it is desirable accurate methods of determining determining age and and quick and accurate other external external characteristics characteristics sex from plumage or other fairly large large and representative representative numbers numbers of so that fairly individuals can be banded and released released unharmed unharmed for studies on on population mortality migration. studies mortality and migration. past decade or so, techniques techniques of aging and In the past sexing live mourning doves by plumage characters characters their have been developed but these these methods have their �limitations. limitations. For For example, determination determination of sex sex by external external examination examination is limited limited to adult birds birds and those of-the- year birds those youngyoung-of-the-year birds well advanced 01 in their their postjuvenile feather post-juvenile feather molt. molt. Aging Aging doves, as with most species, is possible possible only only to the point of of game bird species, differentiation between immature immature and and adult birds, birds. differentiation other game birds birds species, species, However, unlike most other young doves lose all all external external immature immature characters characters young approximately approximately four months after after batch hatch so we we have problems problems starting starting in fall fall in aging live early-hatched early-hatched birds. birds. Much more more work is needed in all phases phases of of dove research research and management which which ininmourning dove of more more sound aging and sexing sexing cludes development of techniques. Following is information information on on the methods techniques. used to date. AGINGTECHNIQUES AGING TECHNIQUES Immature Immature mourning mourning doves can be distinguished distinguished birds by the presence presence of of white tipping on on from adult birds most most feathers feathers of the young young (Fig. 1). 1). Feathers Feathers on adult birds birds are are quite uniform in color. Wings of young young doves retain retain these these age characteristics characteristics longer longer than other other portions portions of of the body body and the1·efore therefore should be examined closely. closely. The ten long outer outer flight feathers feathers examined are are called called primaries primaries and are are enumerated enumerated from one one to ten starting starting with those in the middle of of the wing wing and ending with the primary primary at the tip of of the wing wing (Fig. 2), 2). These These feathers feathers molt in sequence starting starting with the Number 1 primary. primary. The primary primary coverts, coverts, which are small ch small feathers feathers overlying the base base of ea each primary primary feather, feather, molt in similar similar sequence butusually but usually precede precede the primaries primaries by one. Thus, if primary primary Number olted, the Number 4 priber 33 is the last last to have have m molted, primary covert covert also should should have molted. The last last mary primary primary feather feather molted can be distinguished distinguished most easily easily by starting starting at at tbe the wing tip and counting the old primaries ing this number primaries yet p1·esent present and subtract subtracting from ten. The old wing wing primaries primaries are are faded and from lighter lighter colored colored than the new new feathers. feathers. The primary primary coverts are are the last last feathers feathers on a dove dove to show show the coverts tipping. Therefore, Therefore, it can be seen that when the white tip_ping. bird bas has molted the ninth primary, primary, and and sometimes sometimes bird even the eighth, the known known external external immature immature charcharacteristics acteristics are are lost. When When checking any dove for age, the outer outer or tenth primary primary covert covert should should always be carefully for white tipping as this feather feather examined carefully sometimes hidden underneath underneath other other feathers. feathers. is sometimes primary feathers feathers can be utilized utilized Molt sequence of primary in determining determining age of of young since hatch young doves in days suice of the table below. Studies Studies on onthis of aging by use of this type of method have been accomplished accomplished by several several investigainvestigators tors and most agree agree quite well with this this table by J.M. J. M. Allen. For For an example in the use of of the table, let let us say we had an immature immature which had last last molted its its filth fifth primary primary feather. feather. A glance at the table table reve:&ls reve~ls the bird bird was approximately approximately 61 61 days old. These listed listed ages are are simply simply mean figures figures derived derived from the study and there there is :variation between birds. birds. Primar v covert s l'/hite tipp ing on primar cove New New N o, 7 No.7 ~ ~ primary ~~ry coming coming in in Primaries Fig. 2. 2. Diagram Diagram of an immature immature dove dove wing showing showing primary primary feathe1· feather numbering numbering sequence, sequence, aa new new primary primary growing in, and and white tipping of ofsome some primary primary coverts. coverts. �Table 1.L--- Primary Primary feather feather molt as as an age indicator indicator of of immature immature mourning mourning doves.* Last Last Primary Primary Molted Molted Mean Age Age in days Days elapsed Molt elapsed between between Primary Primary Molt 11 2 3 4 5 32 32 38 47 54 54 32 66 9 7 6 7 8 9 10 None molted None'molted 61 7 75 75 79 102 130 130 138 29 14 4 23 28 8 *After Allen, 1963 1963 SEXING SEXING TECHNIQUES TECHNIQUES Adult doves can be sexed by observation observation of of feather feather color on the top and and back of the head and and also on on the color throat throat and and breast breast (Fig. 3). Males have aa blue or bluebluegray gray head and aa pinkish pinkish or rosy rosy breast. breast. Females Females have aa brown or or gray-brown gray-brown head head and aa tan breast breast and throat. throat. Unfortunately Unfortunately there there are are some doves which seem between" gr oup such seem to fall fall into the "in"in-between" group such as aa h a blue-gr ay head and aa tan breast dove wit with blue-gray breast or one with with a rosy rosy breast breast and and a brown head. head. However, However, the the greater greater portion portion of of doves can be sexedqutite sexed quite accurately accurately by by this this color color method. Sex of of immature immature doves doves cannot be birds have be determined determined by color color patterns patterns until until the the birds nearly juvenile molt. nearly completed completed their their postpost-juvenile molt. A A difference difference in the degree degree of of whliteness whiteness of the outer outer three three tail tail feathers feathers of aa dove dove willl will sometime~ sometimes help in sexing betwe,en" categor y. sexing birds birds in the "in"in-between" category. Those which have have three three very very white oute:rtailfeathers, outer tail feathers, and naoe l;llue or bltJish..qr;iy Breas~ Breast and throat th:::oat pinkish pinkish or rrosy or osy hue Cro\'/n a nd nape brown brown nape grayish-bro~n or 9rayish~r 011n Breast Breast and and throat throat tan Fig. Fig. 3, 3. Color Color pattern pattern differentiation differentiation between adult adult males males and females. females. �as opposed to the more more gray gray inner inner feathers, feathers, are are usually usually males males (Fig. 4). Those having only one or two two REFERENCES of the outer outer three three tail tail feathers feathers exhibiting this very Allen, J. M. 1963. 1963. Primary Primary feather feather molt molt rate rate of wild immature 4. Game immature doves in in Indiana. Circular Circular No. No.4. Res. Section, Indiana Dept. of Conserv., Conserv., IndianIndianapolis. Aug. Aug. 7 pp. white colorati on are coloration are often females. females. This method is not completely completely accurate accurate and results results vary vary between observers. observers. Therefore, Therefore, this this method is generally generally used used only when an investigator investigator is quite sure sure of the sex sex of of a bird bird from breast breast and head coloration coloration but wants an added bit bit of supporting supporting evidence. evidence. I ·1 ':' ' ,1 ' ' I ,• l :V~/ <;-,. ,. i_ l J, ·,), • }_/,1 J d • Outer Outer three ttail ail ffeathers eathers very very ,,hite white on on males bvt but onlv only one or two very very white for ffemales er:iales I 1 ' I ~'. ,' 'I '' '\\ ,'-,' ,r,.',' .~ ~ ~ j> .\ i: l : \ I!, Fig. 4. Top view of of a male dove tail tail showing three three very white outer outer tail tail feathers. feathers. Howard D. D. Funk Funk Assistant Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, 1966 1966 �Outdoor Facts 0 t I;;q! PUBLISHED P BLI HED BY THE T nd PA KS DEPT, COLORADOO G GAME, FISH and PARKS FIS DEPT. COLORA M L' Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 47 Number USE OF OF PAINT FOR MARKING MARKING USE PAINT FOR DEER PELLET-GROUPS: A THESIS SUMMARyl/ 11 DEER PELLET - GROUPS: A THESIS SUMMARY pellet-group count technique for censusing censusing The pellet-group deer is based based on on the theory that when whenall deer all pellet-groups pellet-groups area are are removed or marked new new or unmarked unmarked in an area found there later will have been depos deposited ones found there later ited after after removal or marking marking date. the removal of old pellets pellets from pelletpellet-group sampling Removal of group sampling plots, although a widely used technique, is laborious laborious plots, and timetime-consuming. Hart (1958) (1958) found found that much consuming. Hart time and effort could be saved by using paint to identime and effort tifypellet-groups present at the beginning of of a pelletpellettify pellet-groups present survey period. period. group count survey Besides painting painting the pellets approximately Besides pellets alone, approximately limestone rocks, rocks, about threethreeeight or nine white, limestone fourths center of fourths inch in diameter, diameter, were were placed in the center selected pellet-groups, these were were coated with selected pellet-groups, and these traffic-striping done for comparison comparison traffic-striping paint. This was done theconvention<j.l of spraying spraying paint on with the convention;;u method of on the pellets themselves. pellets themselves. Each of three three gasoline gasoline and paint concentrations concentrations were applied to 12 12 pellet-groups durabilities were pellet- groups to test test durabilities marking agent must remain remain visible visible for at least least A marking year, since pellet-groups usually counted and one year, pellet-groups are are usually marked at annual annual intervals. intervals. ff If some of the marked marked marked their identifying marks marks during the year year groups lose their recent groups. groups. This would they may be counted as recent would result in an exaggerated exaggerated deer estimate. result deer population estimate. - Agee 3 3.. Ag Age i2. Age METHODS METHODS determine a satisfactory satisfactory marking marking agent, four To determine of markings markings using three three different different types of of paint types of were applied to 639 639 deer deer pellet-groups. pellet-groups. Then the were pellets were subjected subjected to natural natural weathering weathering for pellets 10-1/2 months between March 16, 16, 1959, 1959, and Jan10-1/2 31, 1960. 1960. Paints Paints were applied from uary 31, from thumboperated, pressure three operated, pressur e type oil cans. The following three of paint we were kinds of r e used: .• 2. Kern Lustral Enamel, an industrial industrial paint, manu2. Kem Lustral factured by Sherman-Williams Company. Four Four factured by the ShermanWilliams Company. colors of of this paint were tested: tested: yellow, orange, red, colors and white. 3. Orange farm farm implement implement enamel manufactured manufactured Coast-to-Coast Stores, Incorporated. Incorporated. by Coast-toCoast Stores, 1The thesis, thesis, ""Evaluation Paint as an Agent Agent for lThe Evaluation of Paint Pellet-Groups," available from the Marking Deer PelletGroups," is available University Library Library in Fort Fort Collins. Collins. Colorado State University •• ••• • •t ..••• I ••• • •••• •• • •• I • • •• • 0 00 0 o· ~. 0• ~ g • • • • ••• ..•••". 8••" I • •• • •<> • I • g Q~ Q Q 0 l .... J ... _ Oel"lsj·y 1. AlkydAlkyd-type, 1. type 1 yellow traffic-striping traffic-striping paint manufactured by the Florman Florman Manufacturing Company Company of of factured Pueblo, Colorado. -- 0 f Density 2 6 Inches I, io -• , ~ I \), " ~ <V ., \ ,~ I L- " e"• .; ' ---- .,~ .,.; ~ • ~ • \) $l~ • • Density O•n II •o 3 ~I I Characteristics of categories categories of of age and and denFig. 1. Characteristics sity used used to classify classify pellet sity pellet groups. �of various various paint paint dilutions. dilutions. These of These dilutions were were one part gasoline to four, eight, and ten parts parts of of traffictrafficpart gasoline striping pa.int. paint. striping Pellet 38 Pellet moisture moisture contents up to a maximum ofr :38 percent, moisture content observed, percent the highest moisture observed, had of markings. no influence on visibility visibility of markings. Pellet groups were were classified Pellet classified by size, size, age and when marked. marked. One One size size category category described described density when pellet groups with 5 to 40 pellets. pellets. Another category category pellet 41 to 70 70 pellets, pellets, and a third third was used for groups with 41 category was used for groups wit~ 70 category wittl more more than 70 pellets. Exact pellet groups were not known, pellets. Exa ct ages of pellet known, classification on the external so age class ification was based based on external appearance pellets. Age density criteria criteria used to pearance of pellets, Age and density classify pellet pellet groups are are illustrated Figure 1. 1. classify illustrated in Figure Pellet groups in age category category '' "1" (Figure l) 1) are are Pellet l" (Figure estimated to be less less than two estimated two months old. Groups in category ""2" are approx:imately approximately two to five 2" are age category months of of age and groups in age category are cat egory "3" '' 3" are estimated to be older older than five months. estimated No significant difference difference was found at the five No significant percent level between moisture moisture contents of painted perceot pellets. This suggests that a coating of and unpainted pellets. suggests that pellets by protecting paint does not prolong prolong the life of pellets protecting them from freezing freezing and thawing. 1f If it could have been shown that paint preserved preserved deer shown deer pellets, pellets, one could expect to identify a partially partially painted pellet pellet group as marked as long as traces rebeing marked traces of the group remained, because pellets would would be the last because the painted pellets last ones in the group to disappear. disappear. The study was conducted on on a south-facing south-facing slope, sage (Artemesia (Artemesia tridentata), tridentata), bitterbrush on big sage bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), tridentata), and mountain ·mahogany (Cerco(Purshia mo\l!ltain 'mahogany carpus montanus) type deer deer winter-range, winter-range, at an eleelecarpus vation of of 7,300 feet, in Cache la Poudre Poudre Canyon, Canyon, approximately 45 45 miles miles west west of Fort Fort Collins, Collins, Colorado. approximately RESULTS RESULTS Traffic-striping paint applied to white limestone limestone Traffic-striping rocks was by far far the most effective marking marking tested. rocks tested. Percentages of total pellet-groups Percentages total pelletgroups treated treated with each marking type, on on which markings markings were still visible visible marking were still after 10-1/2 10-1/2 months are shown in Table 1. after are shown 1. Relative Durability of PelletPellet-Group Table 1. Relative Durability Group Marking Types. Tfl)es. Marking .&Tk::ing Percent off Tpt,~ Total 1 Pellet-Groups E"e:rc.cot c, l'1t 1 11:r: • Ch'~:1 With Marking Visible After 10% Mos. Wit;b H.a-r k.:fog Visible Af'c.in.i: l.~ Ho:11 • Limestone rocks vi.th with traffic~striping Ll¥~ t o ae racks trafff c- attfptng paint p,s,1ot Traffic-striping tr..CHt!!-i!Jtr1ping paint pn ln t: Yellow iindustrial Yellw orlus t:ri,111 paint pain t Implement enamel tqpl{l~r,c e.n:nncl Red paint Red industrial indusuia 1 ;,oinc Orange industrial paintnt. Or-:i Qbtt. lnu'.1.1s.L ri;ei l p-t11 'White industrial lfh_ite i.odust:.rial paint paint 96 78 73 71 69 56 14 Yellow was the most most visible visible color tested, tested, red Yellow second, orange third, third, and white fourth. paint with up to 20 20 percent percent gasoline, gasoline, the Dilution of paint highest tested, had no no effect on the durability durability highest dilution tested, of pellet-groups. of applied pellet-groups, marked pellets pellets in a small small number of groups The marked became covered with litter that the marking became so covered litter that marking could no longer longer be seen.... Litter Litter coverage coverage was not a problem problem this study, but it may become more of a problem problem in this areas. in more heavily vegetated areas. and snow had no no effect upon Rain and upon the durability durability of marking type. any marking Old pellets pellets retained retained paint paint for a shorter shorter time time than new new ones. High temperatures temperatures in summer summer sharply sharply decreased decreased High the visibilities traffic-striping visibilities of traffic-striping paint, yellow, orange, and red industrial implement· orange, industrial paint, paint and implement enamel. marking types except the painted painted limestone limestone All marking rocks decreased decreased sharply sharply in visibility visibility after after exposure rocks exposure for a period period of eight to nine months. This was befor lieved due to paint "fatigue." "fatigue." Bright sunlight decreased decreased the visibility visibility of traffictrafficBright striping paint, paint, yellow, orange, and red industrial paint striping industrial pait1t and implement implement enamel. enamel. The visibility visibility of painted limelimerocks was not decreased decreased by sun brightnes brightness.s. stone rocks regardless s White industrial industrial paint was difficult ttoo see see regardles sunlight conditions. of sunlight gradients up to 60 60 percent, percent, the maximum Slope gradients studied, bad had no on the loss pellets studied, no influence on loss of pellets from from groups. Characteristics of 25 deteriorating pelletpellet-groups Characteristics 25 deteriorating groups were March were rrecorded ecorded over a ten month period period from March January. Pellets dark brown in color when to January. Pellets were dark new, and possessed hard, shiny, shell-like new, poss essed hard, shell-Uke coats. coats. pellets began to crumble crumble in latefall late fall and winter. These pellets winter. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED Hart, Ray D. D. 1958. Evaluation of deer pellet-group deer pellet-group certsus in the Black Black Hills, South South Dakota Dakota,1 M.S. cerrsus M.S . thesis, 100 pp. thesis, Colorado State University. University. 100 Kufeld Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate January, 1967 1967 January, �Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES D IVISION OF DIVISION OF GAME. GAME. FISH FISH ,\NO AND PARKS PARKS Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet Number 48 Number NESTING STRUCTURES FOR NESTING STRUCTURES FOR CANADA CANADA GEESE GEESE 1/ :V Nesting structures structures for for Canada Canada geese geese have been constructed constructed throughout the United States. States. They They are are placed placed not only for captive or semi-domestic semi-domestic flocks, but also also wild populations. populations. Geese accept accept these these strucstructures tures 1·eadily readily because because of of an apparent apparent fulfillment fulfillment of their their basic basic requirements requirements for nesting nesting sites. sites. Canada geese prefer prefer to nest in the open away away from from vegetation. vegetation. Complete visibility visibility in all directions directions around the nest nest site site definitely definitely seems seems to be important, important. Natural tural nesting nesting sites sites are are islands, islands, muskrat muskrat houses houses and haystacks haystacks in those those areas areas with adjacent adjacent meadowlands. These tall grass, These birds birds do do not not like like to nest nest in tall grass, heavy dense brush, brush, as as do ducks. weeds or dense Natural nesting nesting sites sites are are limited limited in most of of the Natural Canada Canada goose development development areas areas in Colorado. ThereTherefore, hese flocks tto o aa desirable fore, to build tthese desirable population level level we we must fu1•nish furnish them with an abundance of of nesting nesting sites. sites. Furthermore, Furthermore, in Moffat County, County, although there there are are aa number of islands islands available, available, one of the major major sources sources of of nest loss loss is flooding. Since the. goose seems seems to _pick pick the lowest island island available, available, the this is the type of island island which usually usually is washed and this during high water, water, placement placement of of structures structures on out during these these islands islands will often mean hatching of of a nest which would otllerwise otherwise have been washed away. away. Selection Selection of of would sites sites on on which to place nesting nesting structures structures vary. vary. For river river nesting populations such as those those in Moffat County, st.uctures structures should be placed first first on on low County, sandy islands. islands. If a nest was brought off on on the island island year before, before, the structure structure should should go go directly directly over the year the the nesting nesting site. site. On On large large islands islands nesting nesting usually usually occurs occurs on on the up- or down-stream down-stream points. points. Structures Structures should be placed at either either end end and and vegetation vegetation should be cleared cleared away. away. To increase increase nesting nesting sites sites it may be desirable desirable to place some some structures structures along along the river river should be on on top of the bank, not banks; however, they should underneath underneath it. If aa meadow meadow or field borders borders the river, river, tthe he structure structure should be on on top of the bank adjacent adjacent to structure should not be placed placed under the meadow. A structure 1lContribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Projects Projects WW-88-R contribution from 88-R and W-110D. W-llO-D. aa high bank: vegetation rises bank or where where vegetation rises around around it. Geese also also do not appear appear to like sites sites under under a high bluff that rrises iises behind the river river bank, particularly particularly where where an animal animal can come out on the bluff and look down down on the 111est. nest. In where breeding breeding flocks In areas areas where flocks of geese geese are are becoming established established such as Larimer Larimer County County or the the San Luis Valley, o Valley, nesting nesting structures structures can be used used tto promote When go.slings promote growth_ growth. of of the the flock. When goslings have been been successfully nest on a structure successfully produced produced from from a nest structure seem to be imprinted imprinted ttoo them and will accept accept they seem as legitimate legitimate nesting nesting sites. sites. Thus, the placement placement them as 'of structure,s structures on marshes, marshes, in small small lakes, lakes, around ·of large river bottoms ead large lakes, lakes, or or along river bottoms will help llead geese to the,se these areas. areas. Structures Structures placed placed in water geese water on larger probably be lost larger lakes: lakes will probably lost due to ice action, action, and thus req[uire require annual maintenance. maintenance. On these these areas areas structures pla ced on structures should should be placed on the banks around around the lake. Geese should be given a variety variety of areas areas from from which to choose. choose. There There should always be considerably considerably more structures structures than there there are are nesting nesting pairs, pairs. Geese do not generally generally nest third year. year. However, do nest until their their third often in thei.r their second second year year they select select their mate, fly often their mate, and look at a variety sites until finally about and variety of sites until they finally find tastes. The young goose will find one one which suits suits their their tastes. will often set set on the nesting nesting structure structure of her her choice with the gander on the water that water near near her. her. It will appear appear that she she is nesting nesting but no eggs will be laid, laid. This often disappoints the farmer farmer or or person person on whose pond this disappoints this takes this is takes place. However, this is a necessary necessary beginning, selected the site site to which she will return return and she has selected year. next year. In placing placing structures structures around around the edge of a large large in putting putting several several structures structures on an island, island, lake, or in care taken not these too close care must must be taken not to place place these close together. together. Geese Geese exhibit strong strong territorialism territorialism and will not tolerate their own tolerate others others of their own kind to nest nest close close to them. Therei There are are exceptions exceptions to this, this, of course, course, where where several several nests nests are are found on the same same small small island; island; but usually usually it it is is better better to spread spread the structures structures out and not concentr ate them in any one place. concentrate anyone place. �TYPES OF STRUCTURES STRUCTURES Several types structures are currently used in Several types of structures are currently Colorado. All of these seem to work well and are are these seem recommended for those areas areas to which they would recommended would seem most most adaptable. adaptable. seem original structure 1. The original structure used in Colorado is Figure 1. It It is constructed constructed by driving driving four shown in Figure steel posts posts into the ground, five feet feet apart, apart, forming forming steel square. Two-by-fours Two-by-fours are sides a sqi.i.are. are bolted to opposite sides drilled in the posts), posts),.and (holes may have to be drilled ,and 1 x 6's are are nailed nailed to these forming a platform 6's these forming platform for the bales of straw. straw. The steel steel posts are cross-braced cross-braced with bales posts are galvanized wire. straw are are placed on galvanized wire. Three Three bales bales of of straw the platform V-shape with a half bale stuffed stuffed in the platform in V-shape center hole. These These are are wired wired together tied to the center together and tied steel posts posts to prevent shifting. steel prevent shifting. straw. Chicken wire wire is inside the tub to allow straw. is looped inside goslings to climb out in case case all nesting nesting material material is goslings lost. Holes are are punched in the bottom of the tub to lost. prevent of water. prevent collection collection of water. Materials for one structure structure consist consist of: of: Materials 6" x 9' Penta Penta treated treated post 1 - 6" 1 - 2" x 4" Xx 12' X 4" 2 - l" I" x 8" 8" x 12' 1 I" Xx 8" X x 8' 8' 1 - 1" 4 - sq. ft. galvanized galvanized metal 1 - bale prairie prairie hay bay large square square wash tub 1 - large Materials for structure consist of: Materials for one structure consist of: 6-1/2' steel posts 2' steel posts 4 - 6-1/ 2 - 2" x 4" 4" by 6' rough native lum.ber lumber I" x 6" by 6' rough native native lumber lumber 7 - 1" 4 - 1/ 1/4" 3-1/2" carriage bolts bolts and 1/ 1/4" 4" by 3-1/ 2" carriage 4" washers washers 30 - 16d. 16d. C.C. box nails nails 3-1/22 - wire wire tied 3-1/ tied bales bales of straw straw Galvanized wire wire Single-post nesting nesting structure structure with predator Fig. 2. Single-post predator guard. Photo by G. G. Remington Original nesting nesting str structure Fig. 1. Original ucture used in Colorado since about 1957. 1957. R. M. Hopper since Photo by R. 2. A variation of the original original structure structure has been variation of devised by Gurney Crawford Crawford to utilize utilize worn-out worn-out tubs devised tu.bs from state state fish hatcheries (Figure 2). A nine foot by from hatcheries (Figure treated post sharpened at the small small end six inch treated post is sharpened driven about three three feet in the ground. A 50-gallon 50-gallon and driven barrel is used to stand stand on on to drive drive the post with a barrel heavy sledge. sledge. The top of the post should be shielded shielded with a metal metal cap to prevent prevent splitting. splitting. A wooden wooden platplatform is constructed constructed around the top of the tub and two-by-fours are are used on top of of the two-by-fours used to brace brace the tub on post. One-by-eight inch side side boards post. One-by-eight boards can be placed around platform to hold the around the outside of the tub platform 3. The latest latest and perhaps structure deperhaps the best best structure Crawford is simply simply a wooden wooden platplatsigned by Gurney Crawford form nailed to the top of a post with half a snow-fence snow-fence form fastened to it (Figure (Figure 3). The platform platform can be built in fastened of 4 - 1" I" x 8" 8" lumber, lumber, by nailing l" I" by the shop out of 4" strips strips around the top edge to lock and hold the 4" boards place. Drill Drill holes in platform drainage. boards in place. platform for drainage. A frame frame of l" I" x 4" 4" of of the same same dimensions dimensions as that used to hold the platform·together platform" together is constructed constructed for used snow fence. Braces Braces are are placed across the top of the snow placed across each corner. corner. A 4 foot snow snow fence roll roll is cut in half frame. Be sure sure platform and upper frame. and nailed to the platform snow fence which has lath spaced apart so to use snow spaced 2" 2" apart escape from nest if the hay level goes goslings can escape �down. down. Use 2 cement cement coated coated nails nails in each end of of each lath. Sink a 9' penta penta treated treated post, 3' into ground. Notch 11 upper xx 10" upper end and nail 2" xx 44" 10" boards boards on on either either side to level and hold nest nest box. Nail platform platform with #16 cement coated nails to these these 2" xx 4" 4" 's. 'So Brace Brace with 2" xx 4" 4" xx 29" from from the bottom side of of the box to the post. post. Cover upper part part of the brace brace with galvanized metal metal to prevent prevent ground predators predators from from climbing climbing on platform. platform. Pack Pack nesting nesting box with prairie prairie hay. Leave Leave some sticking sticking out through the slats slats for for aa natural natural looking nesting nesting site. site. This structure structure ~an be built built faster faster with less 1er three less cost cost than any any of the 1.,,_ lJder three described described in this this leaflet. leaflet. List of of materials materials for for one structure: structure: List 11 11 - 66" penta treated treated post post 9' 4" x 10" 10" (Nailed (Nailed to post post to support support 22 - 2" x 4" nesting box) box) nesting 4 - 1" 1" x 8" xx 32" (Bottom) 11 xx 4" 44 -- 22" 4" xx 29" 29" (Bottom brace) brace) 44 - 1" I" xx 4" 4" x 32" (Top (Top frame) frame) 11 -- piece piece snow fence 19" x 128" 44 - pieces pieces 30 ga. galvanized galvanized metal metal l~!" 12" x 12" 12" Use # 7 cement cement coated coated nails nails on slat slat ends and # 8 cement cement coated coated nails nails on on rest rest of of frame frame 11 - bale prairie prairie hay 4. Crawford Crawford has also also built aa successful successful floating floating nest nest structure structure (Figure (Figure 4). After many trials trials the best best flotation Dyfoam" flotation device was found found to be aa sheet sheet of ""Dyfoam" 11 22" x 2' x 88'1 encased encased with lumber. lumber. Two, Two, 2"' 2" x 12" 12" x 8' 11 x 8' pine on the fir fir is used for the top with 3, 3, 1" I" xx 88" bottom of dimenof the sheet. sheet. Two Two by two inch pine true true dimension is used for space space between between top and and bottom board board cover built cover of the "Dyfoam." "Dyfoam." A nest nest box 18" 18" x 24" 24" built of l" I" xx 8" pine is is placed placed on on the deck. The nesting nesting box should be filled filled with wet prairie prairie hay· hay' which should tramped in tightly so so it will stay. stay. A A splash splash shield shield be tramped is attached attached to the bow bow and on large large water water bodies bodies an extra l" I" xx 8" 8" board board is nailed nailed to the front front of the nestnestextra ing box to give give additional additional protection protection from from spray spray during during wind storms. storms. wind Fig. 4. Floating Floating nest nest structure structure in use. use. Note splash splash shield shield on on bow, and spray spray protector protector on box for for goose. Photo by Bud Smith During early early trials trials it it was found found that high winds would would drag drag the anchor anchor of of a floating floating structilrre. structure. To corcorrect this this aa bobber bobber type float called called an "equalizer" "equalizer" rect devised (Figure (Figure 5). 5). This This bobber bobber is attached attached to a was devised hundred pound pound anchor, anchor, and and the floating floating structure structure is is attached to it by 9' of #9 wire. wire. attached Fig. 3. Snow Snow fence structure. structure. Long Long grass grass placed placed in bottom of structure structure drooping drooping out out through through the openings makes makes aa more more attractive attractive nesting nesting site. site. Photo by G. G. Remington This type of structure structure has experienced. experienced storms storms with 80 MPH without moving its anchor. anchor. It is winds up to 80 is advisable to move these these structures structures out on the lake advisable bank in the fall before before freeze. freeze. Anchors Anchors and and' "equal'equalizers" izers" can be left in place place on small small lakes, lakes, but should be removed action. removed on on large large lakes lakes because because of ice action. List List of of materials materials for one structure: structure: 2 -- 2" oam" top) 2" xx 12" xx 8' 8' Fir Fir (For "Dyf "Dyfoam" �22 linear linear feet 2" .x 22 x 2" pine (Space between top and bottom of ""Dyfoam" Dyfoam" cover) I" xx 8" x 8' pine (For "Dyfoam" 5 - l" 'Dyfoam" bottom, nesting box and splash splash shield) nesting 3D" (equalizer) (equalizer) 1 - 3" x 8" x 30" piece ''Dyfoam" "Dyfoam" 2" 2" x 18" x 6' (Cut (Cut to fit in 1 - piece three compartments) compartments) three Fasten to 3/8" 11 - piece piece light chain 12" long. Fasten 3/ 8" x front end of of struchu·e. structure. 7" bolt in front fastened to other other end end of of above above 1 - light swivel fastened chain fasten to swivel swivel above above and 11 - piece piece #9 wire wire 9', fasten secure to eye bolt on on equalizer equalizer secure 3/W' eye-bolt double tap and rivet rivet for 11 - 3/ &" x 5" eye-bolt center of equalizer equalizer board center board piece of of V-mesh V-mesh wire 30" 3D" x 36" 36" to bold hold 100 1 - piece of stone for tthe anchor. Lace mesh pounds of he anchor. wire together together with 14 14 ga. galv. wi wire. re, 1/2 1/ 2 - bale prairie prairie hay Use #10 , 10 and ##16 16 galvanized nails throughout. Jack R. R. Grieb, Jack Leader Wildlife Research Research Leader and Gurney I. 1. Crawford Crawford Wildlife Conservation Conservation Officer March, 1967 1967 March, Dash brace and nail nail end end brac e a.nd l 1"x2"x6~"block to hold nest and dash to s true ture made of of 2. 2 14 llumber made tlltl:ber 11 projects over front f r ont end 7~"x12" doublel e: c:tap doub ap rivit nd ~ivit. aand 2"x2" .j, lumber 8" 2 links 3/s·x5" o o o of 3/16" chain~ long eye bolt drill drain bo holes dL i 11 \ ! 1 drain l es ~Il 8' I \ 66" N N N \\ 26" I no. 22, Sliivel swivel \ l (( fl V 88'119 ' tf 9 wire \ri1ire ,.,,, ,.. - 2"x12" Z" xl 2" pplank lank "'.., 3' ' x 8 11.x.]Q II i Nest 1 JI o 0 11" 12" 33/16" chainn 12" / 16" chai I) 111. ~'-...- 5 .J:J 26"~_. l1 3/8"xS Il ~ long eye bolt _ oarn equalizer zer equali 3/88" pin in center 3 xB"x30" 3/ center of eequalizer quoliae r tturns urns easily easily while wile the 3"lCB "xJ0" rough water water gainst the rough rrides i des aagainst 11 I1 f-119wire f119 ,nr e Bag I" V mesh Sag made made of o f heavy hea vy 1" wire aced with---=) with wire 30"x36 301lx361111 llaced 14 gauge gauge ga gal. 14 l. wire wire and and ----') filled with 10011stone fi lled wi th l00il • cone 0 O _ ..--.. Fig. 5. 5. Diagram Diagram of floating goose nest nest structure structure with equalizer equalizer and anchor. anchor. 0 0 _ - ~ 0 - Yf- ----.... ~.,...._.___ �Outdoor Facts t I', •• PUBLISHED LISHE BY THE E C COLORADO CR 0 GAME, FISH and PARKS D p . DEPT. Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 49 Number49 SEX AGE DETERMINATION OF SAGE GROUSE SEX AGE DETERMINATION OF SAGE GROUSE FROM PLUMAGE PLUMAGE CHARACTERISTICS FROM CHARACTERISTICS !/ Sound management management of of all game bird species reSound bird• species requires reliable reliable crite criteria determining the sex sex and quires ria for determining of birds birds in the harvest. percentage of young age of harvest. The percentage in the kill kill, as well as the ratio fe-ratio of young to adult fe males, provides provides necessary information on the propromales, necessary information survival, and '"health" duction, survival, 'health" of the population. Previous investigators investigators have established Previous established that that the sex of gallinaceous gallinaceous game birds determined and age of birds can be determined reliably by molting patterns patterns of of the primary primary wing reliably feathers and other other plumage characteristics. characteristics. feathers the wings, a wing measuring m"easuring board board was constructed constructed similar to the one illustrated illustrated in Figure 1A. This similar Figure lA. board had three three lines lines drawn drawn across face, at 215, board across the face 215, millimeters, respectively, from the butt 290 .millimeters, respectively, from 259, and 290 plate. placed upon the wing board plate. Then each wing was placed board with the wrist firmly against against the butt plate, wrist joint joint held firmly plate, sex and age of the bird and the sex bird from from which it came determined according according to the key in Table 1. The was determined reliability of this follow-reliability this method was tested tested with the follow ing results: results: (1955) is credited credited with testing reliability Eng (1955) testing the reliability of primary primary molting molting patterns patterns as indicators indicators of of sex sex and of Prior to this of the age in sage grouse. grouse. Prior this time time many of techniques were were extremely extremely subjective subjective and depended techniques upon the biologists' biologists' experience experience for any any degree degree of accuracy. Among these these techniques techniques were were such such tests accuracy. Among tests degree of ossification ossification of of the sternum, sternum, the as: the degree relative strength strength or flexibility relative flexibility of the mandible, mandible, the color of of the feet, etc. In the last last decade, decade, however, color more objective objective techniques techniques have been developed. Some more applicable of these these methods are are discussed discussed of the more more applicable in the following paragraphs. paragraphs. longest primary, primary, one could expect 1. Using the longest expect to incorrectly classify one out of every every 2,000 incorrectly classify males and one out of of every every 1,000 females (key males females (key characters 3a and 3b). characters primary, one could expect to third primary 2. Using the third incorrectly classify classify one out of every incorrectly every 10,000 DETERMININGTHE SEX ANDAGE DETERMINING THE SEX AND AGE OF HARVESTED HARVESTEDBIRDS BIRDS One of of the simplest, most reliable reliable simplest, fastest, fastest, and m,ost techniques determining the sex and age of techniques for determining of sage sage grouse in the hunter hunter harvest harvest was developed by grouse (1963).. He He devised devised a key {Table (Table 1) 1) which he Crunden (1963) used in coordination coordination with a measurement measurement board board (Fig. 1A) to classify classify sage grouse grouse into sex sex and age catecatelA) gories. The technique technique involved clipping off the wingof wing of gories. grouse just just proximal proximal to the wrist wrist joint each sage grouse joint antebrachium. Each wing then about midway up the antebrachium. sprayed wit with insecticide and placed in a conwas sprayed h an insecticide tainer. stored up to two tainer. The wings could then be stored weeks before before they were classified. this manner classified. In this manner a large number of birds birds could be checked through through the large checking station station in a relatively short time time with a relatively short minimum of of waiting waiting and delay imposed upon the hunhunter. When the biologist classifying ter. When biologist was ready to begin classifying 11 Contribution from Federal Project W-37-R. Contribution from Federal Aid Project W- 37- R. Table 1. Key Key for determining determining age and sex sex of sage sage grouse from from wings (Crunden, 1963). 1963). grouse ••..•••••.•••••••••••••.••••• J ........................... .. J •....................................... J3 ................ .. .... 8 1. l. ~'lolting primaries include .l1.. 2 2,1 or or:3 1•..olti.ng pr'l.Ea r ie~ ~::icl.udti 22... ltlol tin!! ;, prim~ries not 1,.nc.ludn include 1, 2 2,. or ~lUnp • es do ~ J~.. Total Total length of wing; wing tr from cf llongest primary J;, lEingt.b af ot11 wrist t«i st joint J oiffl:. to t.o tip t.ip of oflieSt yri.r-.;.ry (usually no. 4 4 OT or 5) 5) gre;,t.l\l'" greatt'r than 290 mm male 14 4 (usuu.1.y no. t ha.n 290 mm ••.••••••••••••..•.• ····• · ·•••••·• .. - ....... .5!! 3b.. :)b Total Ip-ngth of wing wrist J01.nt j0int to primary Tot lj:ljngt.h of \rr1.ng from f'roi:n wri.st t o tip t.1:p of • f llongest ongest p:r ~ ry (usually no. t&4 or or 5) 5) l.ess than 290 ""' mm ........... ••••••••••••••••••••• (uou.uy ""· th• n 290 . . ... . . . . . . femOl.le r . =1. 66 4 4:••. Male, riol molting primaries 1 adult Male. 1.!.ng pr1r.1:n1es l and/or nd/ or 2 •••••••••.••••••••••••••••• . . ......... . ........ . .. •••· .• ad.ult l.••• J .. .. ..... .... ..... .. ... ... .... .. ........... .55 4b.. ~b l'f~le, molting prim;lry !'i.le , i,oltt111 pri=ry :3 •••••••••••••••••.••••••.••••.•.•..•.••••..• 5a. ,Sa. ~le, length of wing from wrist of prim<>ry 7 gre=.te:greater ~ lengt.h ng fr-o!D vr.ist joint j oint t. t • tip tip of pr im::ao'l'Y ? .5b. 5b. Male,I lJ,P.gth length ■ sfi wing from wrist &lt!I vie& 1'~o= W?"ist joint j oint. to t o tip tip of primOl.ry pri..a:..ey 7 lless e:G :,. than juveni~ than 259 mm •••••••••••••••••..••••••••••..•••..•••••••..••••..• 7J ven;i.le mm ••, ............................. , .... .. ... ........ aduit , dult thAA l lwl 259 mm •....••..••••...•••....•••.•...••••••••.•.••••••••..••.••• l'll:! .......... .......... . . ... ..... .............. ........ ..... 641.. f.'o...i.. JI'emale, ~h:uis molting primar primaries 2 .... •••••••••........•......••........•• adult ies 11 and/f'Jr and/ or 2 .. .......... . .... . ... 2dul-t 6b.. 6b J ....... ...... .... .... .... ... ...... ... .... 'i; Female, molting pn=r;t primOl.ry:3 ..•.........••••••..•••••••••.......•••.•••••••••• Fe =le , r,0lt.i.'1!1 741... Fem.u.e, length n of of wing fro from wrist of pri. primary 7a.. fe:!liil!!I, le_ngt 'llf'ist joint ,1oint to Lo tip tj,p of ry ;7 greater gt-e.~t.e r adult U,an 215""" .. .. ............. ........ ..... ...... ........ .. .. .. odult. than 215 mm ••..••••••...•...•••.......•••••••••.••.•....•..••..•.•.•••• 7b .. ll"l?l-.! ttm:ole, , le.ngtb length or of wing from VT wrist to tip of r:'rimary less,5 7b. "1.ng !rtt■ at. •joint int. 'to tip- o.r t ri..cl;.;..ry- ?7 1.es 215 mm ••••••••..•..•••..•••......••••.••••••••••••••••••••• juvenile tthan han 215 .. . .. . ...... •. • ... -- -- -- -- • -- •, • • • .. • • • ....... • • ~ Sa. o•. Primary :3 l.cng~r longer t!l.n than 2 ........ ....••••....••....••••••••..••..•..••••••.••.. adult:3 J Fri,.. , ;- J .......... .... .............. l!!!!!.. 8b. Sb. Pri."T.ary:3 shorter than ••••••••••..•••••••••..•••••••..••• 1"" ) sh<>rtcr truu, 2 ...... . .. . .. ..... , ......... , • • • • juvenile juvenile 9 9.01.. Juvenile. , li!n~tb len~th of wing from wrist jjQint primary• J 9-a . Juv~nile of Wi.ng !:-0 1::1 -,,,ri.n,. oin"t ttoo tip t.ip of :pr-im:. greater than 259 259 mm•••••••••..•..•....••••••••.•••••.•••••••••• tte. .11 te.r t.h..n • •••• ••· .. ··•·•·· ·· ·•· .. ••· •· ···· · ·· ·· • · ···• • _rn.:tle e Sib. ...b . ~,length :3 Juv-eni..u1 , langtb of 1000 '-1 ng from fro,- wrist wrist joint oi.nl. to to tip l .ip of primOl.ry primu·y J less than 259 = nlIlli ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• less <b..n 2.59 • • • • •• . . • • • • • . . • • • • • • • • • . . • . . • . . • . . • • • • • • • • fem.ale te,..le �wing primaries. These primaries primaries generally generally are are not wing primaries. These molted approximately one year year old. molted until a bird bird is approximately are rounded at the tip, The primaries primaries of of adult birds birds are unfrayed, dark gray color on both unfrayed and of a uniform uniform dark gray color leading and trailing edges. Those of juveniles the leadiqg trailing edges. juveniles are are tips, and spotted ssharply harply pointed, frayed frayed at the tips, spotted on the leading edges, especially especially on on females females (Fig. lC). lC). leading A. DETERMININGHATCHINGDATES DETERMINING HATCHING DATES FROM P POST-NATAL MOLT PATTERNS PATTERNS OST-NATAL MOLT FROM Wing Length iu ADULT AD1JLT MALE t1Al£ B. B~ \ \ ' ADULT ADUJ.1' FEt.ALE FU.ALE JUVENILE Undert.ail Coverts Undi,.rt.i il Covort.s JW;:11]]£ JUVENILE or twl,U ADuLT SUBADULT SUB/JlLt1:t c. Ott..e:r Outer Two Frirr.••ries C. Two f"nJ!'.:rrics 1. Criteria Criteria for determining determining sex sex and age of of sage sage Fig. 1. grouse. grouse. juvenile males and 13 13 out out of every every 10 10,000 juvenile males 000 juvenile females (key (key characters characters 9a and 9b), 9b). juvenile females seventh primary primary to distinguish distinguish aclults adults 3. Using the seventh from juveniles, expect to incor incorrectly juveniles one could expect r ectly classify 3 out of of every every 100 100 adult males, classify males, 3.4 out every 100 100 juvenile males, 6.3 100 of every males , 6. 3 out of every every 100 females, and and 6.4 out of every 100 100 juvenile adult females, or every juvenile females (key (key characters characters 5a, 5b, 5b, 7a, and 7b) 7b).. females desirable for biologists know when Often it is desirable biologists to know the peak of hatching hatching occurred occurred during during any year, year, to determine the correlation correlation of of hatching hatching dates determine elates with weather during nesting. nesting. Pyrah Pyrah (196 (1963) determined weather during 3) has determined the molting sequence sequence and timing timing of of wing primaries primaries of juvenile during the postpost-natal juvenile sage grouse grouse during natal molt. The first primary to emerge emerge is number number 10 10 (the most first primary proximal) which emerges emerges at about 3 1/ 1/22 weeks in both proximal) males and females females (Table 2). The molt then propromales gresses outward toward segresses toward the tip of tthe he wing. The secompleted in about 146 146 days for males males and quence is completed 132 days for females. normal circumstances circumstances 132 females . Under normal this molt will not be completed completed before sage grouse grouse this before sage Colorado on on the second Saturday Saturday in hunting season season (in Colorado September). Therefore Therefore, , by measuring measuring the lengths September). lengths of the various molting primaries various molting primaries and and by using usingtthe he growth curves presented in Figures Figures 22 and 3, one can deterdetercurves presented mine the age of tthe he bird bird and its date of hatching. hatching, replacement data data for juvenile juvenile sage sage Table 2. Primary Primary replacement grouse (Pyrah, (Pyrah, 1963). 1963). grouse ?,-l=:~--,., ~ ,,,, - . -,-Ave. . -• .- G ~, -. .-,,..,.,--J.• -•- .,..1.k,,,-t.D-· -~r=--Av-.,- .--=-. - _-o..,,. .. 5 Primary No. Gro~h'" Ave. LenF,th of Ave. No. off Days errors are However, it is possible possible that that these these errors are compensating resulting in a higher higher degree degree of accuracy accuracy pensating resulting calculated values. than the calculated values. DETERMININGTHE SEX AND AND AGE AGE DETERMINING THE SEX OF LIVE-TRAPPED LIVE-TRAPPED BIRDS, BIRDS, OCTOBER-MAY Accurate sex sex age identification identification is necessary necessary during during Accurate sage grouse grouse trapping trapping and banding operations. operations. Sex can sage be determined determined by examining the undertail undertail coverts. coverts. covert of the male is tipped with white, but the The covert white does not extend down down the feather feather rachis, rachis, wherewheredown the rachis rachis of as the white does extend part part way down the undertail coverts of of females females (Fig. 1B) 1B).. The most undertail coverts reliable coverts coverts are are the longest reliable longest ones toward toward the center (1963) reported reported that this ter of the the. tail. tail. Dalke et al. (1963) this technique was not reliable reliable until a bird reached bird had reached 12 weeks of age age.. They also reported reported that that after after age 12 12 12 three out of of every every 100 100 sage grous grousee were were weeks, only three incorrectly cl classified incorrectly assified with this method. Age can be determined determined oy by examining Age examining the outer outer two ~te Per Day iti.t.e ~~r °'Y Prim:lry cCompleted ~ a.14te.d ~ ey i\E:-s -t;"q;-o~ Required to COD.plete Ritq,wrff! to '-@ .11+il•tA1 ~at 1.. Gro'W'th Emergence ,.Primary =-~--V O:r-01,,"th .::.irery'! (days) hALES 10 to 6.5 .:: :!: .4 6.5 .,, mm .,. 141.5 mm (1Jb-111Sl (1}8-145)'· .. :41 .j ""' 21.8 24 24 9 7.11 !:!: •J .3 ~" mm 7. 152.2 152 . 2 mm ((150-156) 150. 156) 21.4 29 l9 fi 6.8:!:.7 .7 .,, mm ii.<::.:: 164.1 mm (162(162-170) 1.64 . l c, 170) 24.1l 24. ? 6.6:!:!'. .5 .5 -mm o.6 192.5 mm (1.1!9 (i89-196) l~ . 5 ""' . 196 ) 29.2 40 (> 6.1:!: .5 mm 6 . 1 .:: -~ 225.5 .., mm (222..2]01 (222_230) 225.5 37.0 47 j 6.3J .:: :!: .u .4 "" mm 6. (232-240) ) z235.5 :;5. 5 mm (2J2.-l'l;ll 37.4 59 4 .6 .sain mm -66.0:!: 40 ~ .0 237.1 mm l2j (233-243) 217 -1 ~ ·4JJ 39.5 74 j .4 mm ~5.3 -3 :!: _ -~· ~ 2)0.9.9 mm (226_240) 2)0 ~ (226-240 ) 43.6 102 l Ol 10 6.1I !:': ..5j "" mm i,. 120.6 mm (H~(115-12) 1,0 .o .., 12:J ) 8 = 24 .4 •.m t6.4 . , 1:': .,. 129.2 rr<n (125-1)3) 12., . 2 .,, ois-n;l 20.2 27 .4 mm 66.7:': . ? ! ·"' 138.0 mm (1)2-143) !~. "" (l~14'3) 20.6 2' . .. o 33 .5 ..., mm 66.3 .) !.~ .5 157.0 (153-164) 151. 0 mm (1SJ .J5b ) 24.9 )8 45 = 6.3:!: .5 no mm 6. J ! ., 187.7't"" mm ((180-195) 15?. l &l-1.95) 30.0 j 5.9:!: mm 5. 9 .:!: ..4 ""' 197.3 197 .) (195-204) 119 20<;) 33.4 54 4 .7 ,un j5.5 .5 !:': .7"' 200.) J mm (192-2.05) 20O. .,. (192-W~) )6.4 66 41.2 91 mm t,llf �~.ALES 2.11-0 240 230 230 220 2.10 210 200 200 190 160 180 170 160 150 el"'~ '" !4-0 140 ~~ U) H 1JO 130 ~~ 120 H H z .."'..,'" H H :x: '""' i~ 110 100 90 90 "''".-1 so 80 70 70 6o 60 50 40 4-0 JO 30 20 10 10 00 10 10 20 20 JO 30 40 40 .50 50 60 6o 70 80 90 70 AGE IN IN DAXS DAYS 100 100 110 110 120 120 1JO 130 1!io 140 150 150 160 160 Fig. 2. owth of 2. Emergence Emergence and and rate rate of of gr growth of primary primary wing wing feathers feathers of of juvenile sage grouse grouse (males) from PPyrah yrah (1963). (1963). 240 2)0 230 220 2210 10 200· 190 180 170. 160 J 2 l 0o 10 w 20 ro ~ 30 40 4-0 .50 50 60 6o 70 80 so 90 100 ~ 110 110 120 120 !JO 130 140 150 150 160 160 AGE IN IN DAYS Fig. 3. 3. Emergence Emergence and rate rate of of growth of primary primary wing feathers feathers of of juvenile sage sage grouse grouse (females) from from Pyrah Pyrah (1963}. (1963). �REFERENCES Crunden, C. W. W. 1963. 1963. Age Age and and sex of sage sage grouse grouse from wings. J. Wild!. Wildi. Mgmt. 27(4): 27(4): 846-849. Dalke, PP.. D., D. D. B. Pyrah, Pyrah, D. D. C. C. Stanton, Stanton, J.E. J. E. Crawford, Crawford, and E. F., F. Schlatterer. Schlatterer. 1963. 1963. Ecology, productivity, productivity, and and management management of sage grouse grouse in in Idaho. J. Wild!. Wildi. Mgmt. 27(4) 27(4):: 811-841. Eng, Eng, R. R. L. 1955. 1955. A A method for for obtaining sage sage grouse grouse age age and sex ratios ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Wildi. Mgmt. 19(2): 267267-272. 19(2): 272. Pyrah, D. D. B. 1963. 1963. Sage Sage grouse grouse investigations. investigations. Idaho Pyrah, Fish Fish and Game Dep., Wildl. Wildi. Restoration Restoration Div. Job Compi. Rep, Rep. Proj. Proj. WW-125-R-2. 71 p. Compl. 125- R-2. 71 R. Bruce Bruce Gill Gill R. Researcher Candidate Wildlife Researcher March, 1967 1967 March, �O t_1tdoor Facts Outdoor PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT oFNATURALRESOURCES OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION F GAME. DIVISION O OF GAME, FISH FISH ANO AND PARKS PARKS Number Number 49 49 Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet (revised) (revised) SEX WING SEX AND AND AGE AGE DETERMINATION DETERMINATION OF SAGJE SAGE GROUSE GROUSE FROM FROM WING 2 1 CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS! 2 Sound of game Sound management management game bird bird species requires requires reliable reliable criteria criteria for for determining determining sex and and age of birds birds in the the harvest. harvest. The The percentage percentage of juveniles, yearlings, and adults provides juveniles, yearlings, and adults provides information information on production production and and survival survival rates rates in the population. population. Previous Previous investigators investigators have the have established established that that sex and and age of gallinaceous gallinaceous game game birds birds can can be determined determined reliably reliably by various various criteria criteria of wing plumage. plumage. Eng (1955) (1955)is credited with testing testing the the reliability reliability Eng is credited of molting molting patterns patterns of primary primary wing wing feathers feathers as indicators indicators of sex and age in in sage sage grouse grouse ((Centrocercus Centrocercus urophasianus). urophasianus). Prior Prior to this this time techniques techniques were subjective subjective and and accuracy accuracy varied varied with the the interest interest and and experience experience of the the biologists. biologists. Among tests Among subjective subjective techniques techniques used were such tests ossification of the sternum, sternum, relative relative as: degree of ossification strength the mandible, strength or flexibility flexibility of ofthe mandible, color of the the cranium strength, strength, and and vaxious various color pattexns patterns feet, cranium body. Objective techniques techniques have have been of the body. developed and and will be outlined outlined in this this paper, DETERMINATION OF AGE DETERMINATION sage grouse grouse collected during during the the Wings of sage hunting hunting season season (early (early September September in Colorado) can be easily separated separated into adult, adult, yearling, yearling, and and juvenile juvenile categories. categories. Adult Adult sage sage grouse grouse are are those those which which have have molted all of the 10 10 wing ptimaries primaries at least least once and and are in thentheir third third year year oflife. oflife. Adult Adult primaries are typically typically uniform uniform in color with primaries rounded rounded tips (Fig. 1). 1). Primaries Primaries are numbered numbered prnximal proximal to distal distal (inside (inside to outside) and and primaries primaries are to 10. Yearlings are are replaced replaced in sequence sequence from 11to 10.Yearlings those which which still still retain retain juvenile juvenile primaries primaries 9 and/ These primaries and/ or 10. 10.These primaries will be faded and and worn, 1'Revision Re1;isio1L of Information Leaflet of Game Game Information Leaflet Number Number -19, 49, Sex-age Sex-a~e determination determination of ofsage sage grouse from plumage plumage characteristics, characteristics, by by Gill, March March 1967 R. Bruce Bruce Gill, ··Crrntribution "Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W.37-R W-37-R in primaries 8 through through 1. in contrast contrast to primaries 1. Any Any bird bird retaining juvenile primary primary 10 retaining juvenile 10 and and molting molting primary yearling (Fig. 1). primary 99 is a yearling 1). Young-of-the-year Young-of-the-year sage have juvenile sage grouse grouse are are those those which which have juvenile primaries usually 8, all new in primaries H 9 and and 10, 10, and and usually appearance with frayed tips. Juvenile Juvenile appearance, with no frayed primaries pointed and narrow (Fig. 2), when primaries are pointed and narrow 2), when compared primary compared with with adult adult primaries primaries (Fig. 1). If Ifprimary 8 is ajuveni.lefeatheritwillalways a juvenile feather it will always be shorter shorter than than juvenile primaries 9 juvenile primary primary 9 (Fig. 2). 2). Juvenile Juvenile primaries and 10 10 are are not. not replaced replaced until late September September or and until late October of the the year year following following hatching hatching (15-16 (15-16 months of age). Yearlings Yearlings usually can be easily easily months usually can separated juvenile birds birds by the the worn worn and separated Jtrom from juvenile and appearance of primaries primaries 9 and and 10 (Fig. 3). 3). faded appearance sometimes arise arise on birds birds However, problems problems sometimes retaining primaries 9 and retaining juvenile juvenile primaries and 10 and and molting molting juvenile juvenile primary primary 8. In such such cases, cases, examination examination of secondary 11will enable proper classification. wing secondary will enable proper classification. Secondaries Secondaries are are located located proximally proximally to primaries, primaries, numbered distal distal to proximal proximal (1 (1 tolO), and and are are are numbered replaced reverse order. Thus, replaced irn in reverse Thus, secondary secondary 1 is proximally adjacent adjacent to primary primary 1. 1. Juvenile Juvenile birds birds proximally will still r, e tain juvenile juvenile secondary retain secondary 1. 1. Juvenile Juvenile secondaries pointed and secondaries are pointed and contrast contrast markedly markedly rounded adult adult secondaries secondaries (Fig. 4). Juvenile with rounded 4). Juvenile secondary present until until the secondary 1 is usually usually present the 16th week of age and present on all but and thus thus will be present but a few of the birds when the juvenile juvenile birds when harvest harvest is in early early September. September. Of 350 juvenile juvenile wings wings collected in North Parle Park on 13 and and 14 September September 1974, 1974, only only 3 North (<: H11 197(1) had molted molted juvenile secondary 1. 1. (< ) had juvenile secondary DETERMINATION DETERMINATION OF OF SEX SEX After bilrds been categorized birds have have been categorized by age, experienced biologists biologists can can reliably sage grouse grouse experienced reliably sex sage wings by irelative relative size. Eng Eng (1955) (1955) developed a method birds by length method foir for sexing sexing birds length of critical critical primaries. measured (in millimeters) primaries. Primaries Primaries are are measured millimeters) the tip feather. from the the point point of insertion insertion to the tip of the the feather. �The critical critical primary primary to be measured measured is dependent dependent on molt molt stage. stage. Table Table 1 is derived derived from Eng's Eng's published published data. data. No acceptable acceptable technique technique has has been developed developed to sex juvenile juvenile primaries primaries 10, juvenile birds birds retaining retaining juvenile retain 9, 8, 8, and and 7. However, However, relatively relatively few birds birds retain four juvenile juvenile primaries primaries by early early September. September. Of Of 350 juveniles only 8 juveniles checked checked in in North North Park Park in 1974, 1974,only percent retained four juvenile primaries. percent (28) retained four juvenile primaries. Such Such wings wings should should be recorded recorded for age age ratio ratio determinadetermination but juvenile but diiscarded discarded for determination determination of juvenile sex ratio. ratio. This This assumes assumes that that neither neither sex sex is more more likely the other retain all 4 primaries. likely than than the other to retain primaries. Any Any adult adult or yearling yearling female female retaining retaining old primaries primaries 10, most likely 10, 9, and and 8 or more more is most likely a successful successful nester. nester. Females Females having having completed completed their their primary primary PRIMAR---IO PRIMAR'f I SECONDARY I Fig. Fig. 1. 1. Wings of of mature mature sage sage grouse: grouse: adult adult (top) and and yearling yearling (bottom). (bottom). Fig. 2. 2. Wings of of juvenile juvenile sage sage grouse: grouse: retaining retaining 33 juvenile juvenile primaries primaries (10, 9, 8) and and illustrating illustrating juvenile juvenile secondary Jl 1 (top), and and reta:in. retaining 2 juvenile primaries (10, secondary i ng 2juvenileprimaries 9) (bottom). (bottom). �molt molt or retaining retaining old primaries primaries 10 and and 9 are are probably probably unsuccessful unsuccessful in in nesting nesting or lost lost their their brood brood within within one week of hatching. hatching. DETERMINATION DETERMINATION OF HATCHING HATCHING DATES DATES Often Often it is desirable desirable for biologists biologists to know know when when the the peak peak of hatching hatching occurred occurred during during any any year. year. Pyrah Pyrah (1963) (1963) recorded recorded the the molting molting sequence sequence and and timing timing of replacement replacement of primaries primaries of pen-raised pen-raised juvenile juvenile sage sage grouse grouse during during the the post-natal post-natal molt. molt. Primary Primary number number l, 1, the the first first to emerge, emerge, does so at at approximately approximately 3 ½ 1/2 weeks weeks of age in both both males males and and Fig. 3. Wings Wings of of sage sage grouse; grouse: juvenile juvenile (top) and and yearling yearling Fig. (bottom). (bottom). females females (Table (Table 2). 2). The The entire entire molt molt sequence sequence (1 through through 8) is completed completed in about about 146 days days for males males and and 132 days days for females. females. Normally Normally this this molt molt will will not not be completed completed before before the the sage sage grouse grouse hunting hunting season in September season (second (second Saturday Saturday September in in Colorado). Colorado). Therefore, Therefore, measurements measurements oflengths of lengths of various various primaries primaries can can be used used in conjunction conjunction with with growth growth curves curves (Figs. (Figs. 5 and and 6) 6) to estimate estimate age age and and thus hatch. thus enable enable one to calculate calculate peak peak of hatch. Fig. 4. First First secondary secondary of of sage sage grouse: grouse: mature mature (left) and and juvenile (right), (right), illustrating illustrating males (top)1 (top) and and females females juvenile males (bottom). (bottom). �Table l. 1. Diagnosti Diagnostic primary primary lengths determination Table lengths for sex determination Eng 1955). 1955). (modified from Eng 240 240 Length in .K&l1t. Hale Len_gt.b i.a (mm) (a) Length in Female Length 1u l'.....Ue (mm) (=l 7 2:. ?JS 235 2: ~ 220 2220 6 2: 2:. 237 237 ~ 225 ~225 2: 2:. 235 235 s_ ~ 223 2:. 170 2: 170 $_.l.)8 ~ 158 2:. 237 237 2. ~ 217 217 :5. Primary Prim-Hy Number 'Nu=hcc Molt Stage 220 220 200 200 110 not not molted or all 110 mol.ted OT all ., ::1 180 a: 180 molted ... 160 160 w LIJ I.., w z2: :; 140 :J 14Q ..J ...J i~ 120 ~ 1100 00 ~ molted #10 and 09 #10 t9 not not. ni:olted ..."' 80 :I: :c .... zz '" w oJ ~ 10 5 80 g 60 60 40 40 no. 09. and 118a 20 20 not molted not. 111oltcd 0 ~"'T"""""'T~l--'-+-"'-T---'.--......--.-----.-..............~ - ~ ~ ~----. 0 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 :50 50 60 60 70 70 BO eo 90 90 IOO 100 110 110 120 130 140 140 150 160 O 10 AGE IN DAYS t 10 19m 10~ :m 9f 9f 9 B.C~ Bo~ 18m lS.. 15f 15£ 2:. J.oJ 163 ?. ~ 1 156 :5. 56 2:. 20,, 204 2. ~ 194 $..194 These c:rite:ria criteria are based on known-sex birds anl.Yonly. ~a Tbue are bai;ed oa mown- •ex bh:ds Sample -91.:ze size from Eng S:mrpl.e. t" r OII f.ng (Montana) and Beck) unpublished (Co.lorado) (Colorado). . (1955) {Moa tana) aud Beek, unpubl.uh,,d Emergence aTid and Tate rate of of growth growth of primary wing Fig. 5. Emergence of primary wing feathers of of juvenile male sage sage grouse grouse (modified feathers juvenile male (modified from Pyrah 1963). Pyrah Table 2. Primary data for juvenile sage grouse Table Primary replacement replacement data juvenile sage grouse (modified from Pyrah Pyrah 1963). 1963). 220 220 PriClary P~ry Number X~,11:- 20 2 Ave-c Ave.. t"nwch~ GroW"tha Rat.e f'e Perr n.y Day R-1:.~ Ave. t.:111&ch Length a! of Ave. Completed Primary Ci::a::,litcad ~ Ave. of 061JS Days Ave. No. :;o. o! Required to Complete ~~~ t.o~l~te' Prinary Gro""t.h P~':7 Cnnot.il ... _... Age >.v at O< Emergence 180 1 80 ......."'a: 160 IF) w LIJ MALES ~E.S ..J ...J 120 ~ ~ ~ 10 ~ 80 ~w 60 §!! 21.8 ?1.8 ,. l. 7.1 .± ,.31mIll 7.l.!:_ - 152.2 IlI:Il(150-156) 152.~"' (l..)()-U6) 21.4 21 . , 29 29 6.8 ±. ..71 ::::= mm. E -~~ 164.1 mm (lH(162-170) 16<- .l _, 17D) 24.1 24 .l 34 3" 192.5l "" mm. (18!1-l.96) (189-196) U?. 225.5 ""' nm (222-230) (222-230) m.l 235.5 .,. mm (232(232-240) B5.5 240) 29.2 2:-9.2 40 <0 3. 6.6±..5mm 6.6 .i .. 5 -=a. 6.1 !. ± .s .5 i:a mID 6.l. 120 :I: :c .... I- 141.5 mm (tl8-1'S)b (138-14S)b l(;l.3- ::::a = w w 140 ::li 140 ~ :::; :J 6.5.±..4 6..,'5, =.• 4 za 160 6.3±.4ram fi.3 i. r,l,. !So 6.0±..6mm 5.D :t .li Uilt. 5.3±.4mm S,3 .! . . ..J ....J 237.111IIII (233-243) 237. I ""' (233-?•JJ 230.9 1J ~ mm (2.26-240) (226-240) ?30, 40 24 37.0 37.0 47 '1 37.4 37. ;o 59 ., 39.5 74 7• 43.6 J.6 102 IOl 24 24 ~ ~ 20 .s = 0 .__,..-r.....,._,_,_r'-,'-,--'-,-----,-+-,---r---r-,----,---.--, 0 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 70 80 eo 90 90 100 110 110 120 130 140 150 160 0 IQ 60 70 AGE IN DAYS AGE Fig. Emergence and and rate rate of growth of of primary primary wing Fi,g. 6. Emergence of growth wing feathers of juvenile sage grouse (modified (modified from feathers of juvenile female female sa. g e grouse from Pyrah 1963). Pyrah 1963). 6.1 ± .5 mm. 6,1:t 120.6 mID(115-123) 120. 6 .,. (US-1 23) 19.8 19.8 6.4 :t. ±. .4 6.4 mm. 129.22 "" mm (US-lll) (125-133) U9. 20.2 i?O.z 27 21 6.7 ± .4 nnn 6. 7 .!: ·' llQ; 138.0 mm c1n(132-143) i;s.o.,. •4l l 20.6 l.0.6 33 l3 = 66.3±.5mm .]_±.Seb 157.0 ~ ram (l.H(153-164) 1.57.U 164) 24.9 2-4 .9 6.3 .±. ± ,5" .5 DJJl. 6,3 m: 187.7 7 om nun (180-195) 187, (100--195) 30.0 30.0 5.9 ±. ± ·" .4 nun 5,, mi 5.5 ±. .1 .7 111111 mm !I~}:!:.. 197.3 mm (US-204) (195-204) l97 .3 ""' 33.4 3) .4 200.3 3 -rom ()9?-20) (192-205) ) 200, 36.4 36., 4.7 ±. ..44 .mm i..1 ::!;: 193.6 at rom (187-201) Ul,6 (ll1~U1) 41.2 41.2 38 38 ~ .· 45 4l 54 66 91 91 99 pel"ce.at percent confidence limits. • ,, c:m.fi.~uc~ l..1&1t,i LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE • Range tif of dat,a data lo in p parentheses. L"Elr. ~ t hc.58.li . Eng, R. L. 1955. A method method for obtaining obtaining sage sage Eng, grouse age age and and sex sex ratios wings. J. J. Wildl. Wildi. grouse ratios from wings. Manage. 19(2):267-272. Manage. 19(2):267-272. Pyrah, D. B. 1963. 1963. Sage Sage grouse investigations. Pyrah, grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Wildlife Idaho Fish and Game Dept. Wildlife Restoration Div. Job Job Compl. Compi. Rep. Proj Proj.. W-125-RW-125-RRestoration 2.71 2. 71 p. Tom D. Beck Tom Graduate Re Research Assistant Graduate earch Assistant R. Bruce Bruce Gill Wildlife Research Leader Leader Wildlife Research Clait Braun Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher Researcher Wildlife May 1976 1975 May �Outdoor Facts F 0 "I J PUBLISHED PUB ISt-lEO BY THE COLORADO GAME, FISH DEPT. E Fl H and PARKS P R 5 DEPT. COLO AD G Number 50 Number Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet PHOTOGRAPHIC BACKDROP RANGE STUDY AID !/ PHOTOGRAPHIC BACKDROP -A A RANGE STUDY AID Early range exclosure exclosure studies studies indicated indicated a need for Early clear, sharp sharp pictures shrubs in which clear, pictures of shrubs which individual plants would be distinctly distinctly separated separated from those in the plants would background. Use use of a backdrop was believed believed to be the best graphically depict these these individual best means to graphically shrubs. Although Although the idea of using such a device was shrubs. new, photo backdrop specifications not new, specifications were not available in the literature, literature. Following description available Following is a description of a satisfactory satisfactory aid developed for use in photographof construction materials are ing shrubby vegetation; construction materials are listed, and and procedures procedures for building and using the listed, backdrop are are given. MATERIALS MATERIALS three pieces the plywood plywood twice vertically vertically to yield three pieces that are 17, 17, 22, 22, and 21 21 inches wide respectively, respectively, from are right to left facing the painted side. The next step is right pairs of of 4" x 4" x 3/ 3/8" to attach Ss·ix ix opposing pairs 8" plywood plates plates on on adjoining edges of sides wood of the unpainted sides of the three three sections sections to provide additional support support for of hinges. Then, screw screw the six hinges in place, being careful to fit the sections sections of the backdrop together careful together as cracks. The tightly as possible possible to avoid noticeable cracks. above procedures allow the 17-inch wide rightrightabove procedures will allow hand section section to first first fold backward and inward upon hand upon center section; the 22-inch wide center section; then the 21-inch left-hand section section can be folded upon upon both of wide left-hand of the others (Figure 1). 1). The folded baCkdrop others backdrop can then be 0 For One-Piece One-Piece Backdrop For Plywood: Plywood: Paint: Paint: Enamel: 1 - 4' 4'xx 5' x 3/ 3/8", exterior, A-C grade 18", exterior, 1 quart, flat, white, oil base base 1/2 pint, black Materials Needed Additional Materials Needed for Folding Backdrop Plywood: 12 12 - 4" X x 4" X x 3/8" 3/8" Plywood: Strap iron: 4 - 66"11 x 1/2" X x 1/ 1/8" Strap X 1/2" 8" 2-1/2", 6 pair, pair, 21/2", narrow butt Hinges: Screws: flat wood, size size and number to sUit suit flat head, wood, Screws: needs 8, round head, wood, wood, size size as needed Screws: 8, Washers: flat, assorted, assorted, number and size size as needed Washers: flat, CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION Apply of flat, white paint to the good good side Apply two two coats of of the 4 x 5-foot piece of plywood. plywood. Next, using a stripping brush and black enamel, paint 1/ lj8-inch stripping brush and 8-inch intervals top to bottom and wide grid lines at 6-inch intervals across the white surface. surface. Grid-spacing side to side across Grid-spacing numbers can then be painted on on with black enamel numbers of the numbers numbers template. template. This will proand the aid of provide a very usable usable one-piece one-piece backdrop. portable backdrop is desired, desired, the one one If a more portable just converted into one one that folds. Cut just made can be converted 1lContribution Federal Aid Project W-38W-38-R. coritribution from Federal Aid Project R. Fig. 11 Photographic backdrop showing placement of placement of plates, iron braces. braces. Photo by plates, hinges, and pivotal iron by G. Andrews G. �carried under under one arm arm which is a big advantage when when carried it must brush and trees. must be carried carried through brush trees. sections of of the backdrop its To keep the sections backdrop open and its surface flat when in use, iron braces braces are are atatsurface use, four iron tached to the back, as shown. Each of of the pieces of tached pieces of strap iron drilled at one end and a notch strap iron has a hole drilled other end to accept screws. cut at the other accept round head screws. spaced to suit, each outside outside Attach two braces, braces, spaced suit, to each section of the backdrop backdrop with round head screws screws and section washers at the drilled drilled holes. holes. On the opposing flat washers sections attach attach round head screws screws to receive receive the sections braces. notched ends of the braces. prop the backdrop backdrop upright upright A brace brace with which to prop prevent the wind from blowing it down down is a handy and prevent handy accessory. It is easily easily made made from a 55-foot accessory. foot length of 4" board. board. Attach a small small gate hook 1" x 4" hook at one end accept a screw screw eye or small small staple to accept staple fastened fastened to the plate of of the upper upper right-hand right-hand pair pair of of plates left plate plates of backdrop. the backdrop. backdrop with other other photographic photographic Fig. 2 Photographic Photographic backdrop equipment. Photo by G. G. Andrews APPLICATION APPLICATION To use the backdrop, place it flush against against the backdrop, place shrub to be photographed; painted side totoshrub photographed, with the painted ward the camera. upright with the camera. Prop Prop the backdrop backdrop upright brace stick stick by snapping the gate hook at one one end into brace screw eye provided provided on on the back of of the backdrop backdrop the screw against the ground. PerPerand sticking sticking the other other end against tinent photo data data can be recorded recorded on on a slate slate (l' (1' x ti,nent 1-1/2' masonite coated several several times 11/2' piece piece of masonite times with slating paint). The slate slate is placed placed to best best advantage slating against or attached attached to the backdrop backdrop (Figs. (Figs. 2 and 3). against Also, to permanently permanently locate locate the camera camera point, rebar stakes driven below the camera camera tripod tripod rebar stakes can be driven after the picture picture is taken. taken. A wood wood or steel stake can after steel stake be driven driven at one edge of the backdrop backdrop to serve serve as a stake and help in positioning positioning the backdrop backdrop for guide stake for future pictures pictures (Figs. 2 and 3). future B. D. Baker Baker Assistant Wildlife Researcher Assistant Researcher April 1967 1967 April Serviceberry (Amelanchier (Amelanchier alnifolia) plant at Fig. 3 Serviceberry alnifolia) plant Exclosure demonstrating demonstrating use of backbackSinbad Valley Exclosure Baker drop. Photo by B. Baker �Facts Outdoor Facts [.. If} PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUBLISHED I\~:'. ,\t.. I. ~'" COLORADO GAME. GAME, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO Number umber 51 51 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet THE BARBARY BARBARY SHEEP SHEEP THE explored the world they carried carried animals animals As men explored livestock, or inadvertinadvertwith them either as pets and livestock, ently as stowaways. The results results of this this haphazard haphazard introduction have been both disastrous, disastrous, as in the case case introduction of the mongoose (Herpestes (Herpestes auropunctatus) auropunctatus) in Hawaii, of European rrabbit the European abbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Australia, and the Norway rat rat (Rattus norvegicus) tralia, norvegicus) beneficial as in the case case of throughout the world; and beneficial of ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) and the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus trout (Salmo (Salmo trutta) trutta) in the United states. States. the brown trout present century, century, men have realized During the present realized the potential consequences consequences of practice and have potential of this _practice passed prohibiting careless introduction introduction of passed laws pr ohibiting careless plants animals. history of of previous previous inplants and anima ls. Thus, the history troductions of Barbary Barbary sheep must must be studied closely troductions studied closely respect to their their desirability, desirability, and careful careful conwith respect sideration given to proposals introductions sideration proposals for future introductions new areas areas of of the United States. States. in new On December December 14, 14, 1900, 1900, the first first Barbary Barbary sheep On imported to the United States States by the Jersey Jersey City were imported year the New Zoo. The next year New York Zoological Park Park received some. From these these two shipments origreceived some. From shipments have orignearly all the Barbary Barbary sheep sheep in the country. inated nearly New Mexico, Texas Texas and Wyoming Wyoming are are presently New presently studying the feasibility of introducing introducing the Barbary feasibility of Barbary sheep animal. New New Mexico and Texas as a big big game animal. Texas have released the sheep sheep on on open range. range. Wyoming Wyoming has rerereleased leased them behind fences fences at the Sybille Game leased Research station. Station. (Ogren 1962, 1962, 1965; 1965; Evans 1967) 1967) Research DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION The Barbary Barbary sheep is called called by more more than 37 37 different common names names among which are ferent are aoudad, moufIan and maned sheep. sheep. It is a ruminant ruminant of Family lan of the Family Bovidae and its traced back to an its evolutionary evolutionary line is traced ancestor in common with our mountain sheep, sheep. ancestor HISTORY HISTORY The oldest oldest ffossils Barbary sheep (Ammo(Ammoossils of of the Barbary tragus lervia) lervia) are are from Europe and date back only tragus only 75,000 years. Today this animal is found found naturally naturally 75,000 years. on the North African African throughout the Atlas Mountains on coast and in the rugged country on on the fringe of the coast Sahara Desert. Desert. It has been introduced introduced in zoos and the Sahara America (Fig. 1). 1). wild in Asia, Europe Europe and America of the Barbary Barbary (Fig. 1) 1) include The generic generic traits traits of heavier build in the forequarforequarlong mane and chaps, a heavier ters true antelopes, antelopes, long tail tail and no preorters than the true preorbital glands. The distinguishing distinguishing feature bital feature is the long hair under its its front legs. Males and hair its neck and on its front legs. females are similarly adorned although the hair hair of of females are similarly the rams rams is longer, Their longer, often reaching reaching the ground. Their pelage is a sandy or tawny brown blending well with surroundings. The hairs dark-brown the surroundings. hairs may have dark-brown tips along the center center of of the back, in the ssideburns tips ideburns and in the mane and chaps. Between the legs and on the belly the coat is white. The animals animals stand taller taller in the forequarters. forequarters. Males have been weighed at 320 320 pounds and ffemales emales up to 140 pounds. 140 sexes are are horned. A big ram Both sexes ram taken in New New 30 inches inches and a Mexico had a horn length of about 30 spread of of the same. same. The ewe's ewe's horns smaller, spread horns are are smaller, measuring about 20 inches. inches. Their Their horns horns are measuring are only curved, of our native bighorns, bighorns, curved, not curled curled like those of and the tips remain sharp sharp throughout life.· life. tips remain 1. Typical Barbary Fig. 1. Barbary sheep ram. ram. Photo by New New of Game and Fish. Fish. Mexico Dept. of of the Barbary Barbary has a large, large, horizontal horizontal The eye of pupil surrounded surrounded by a brilliant, brilliant, yellow iris. iris. (Ogren 1962, 1965; 1965; Evans 1967) 1967) 1962, �REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION potential of the Ba1·bary Barbary sheep is The reproductive reproducti11e potential highest among any wild ruminant the highest ruminant in the United States. They will breed breed the year-round no States, year-round and have no well defined defined rut rut although most of the breeding breeding occurs occurs well from mid-September mid-September to mid-November. mid-November. New from The New herd increased increased from an initial initial plant plant of 57 57 Mexico herd animals in 1950 1950 to an estimat estimated animals ed peak population of animals by 1962. 1962. Texas Texas rerebetween 2,000 and 3,000 animals ported increase in its introduced introduced herd herd of 1,500 ported an increase percent years. percent over a period per~od of ten years. indicated that male male sheep The New New Mexico study indicated reach puberty as early 11 months of of age and rams rams reach early as 11 years were still still virile. of about 20 years virile. The youngest ewe produce a lamb at the Sybille research facility was to produce research facility 13 months, 12 12 days old. In the next 13 13 months and 13 four days this this same same ewe gave birth birth to three more three more lambs in single single births. births. Another mature mature ewe dropped lambs three sets sets of of twins over over a period of 359 359 days. The three period of gestation period Barbary is about 155 155 days. gestation period of the Barbary sample of 42 ewes taken over a span of of seven In a sample of 42 seven years three states, states, single single births births occurred occurred years and from from three percent of of the time, time, twins 57 57 percent percent of the time 38 percent and triplets triplets occurred Reproductive records occurred once. RepToductive records of herd show that that when a ewe was under the the Sybille herd stress severe weather weather conditions and a minimum stress of severe diet all births were singles. When the diet was adediet births were singles. When quate and the ewe in good good physical physical condition twins were rule. (Ogren 1962, 1962, 1965; 1965; Blunt 1963, 1963, 1964; 1964; were the rule. Evans 1967) 1967) low concentrations concentrations as not to pose a threat but in such low threat animal. No No lungworms lungworms have to the health health of the animal. been found. found. The Barbary Barbary is native native to a hot and dry climate. climate. At Sybille the animals seSybBle animals were were purposely purposely subjected subjected to severe artificial shelter. shelter. None vere winter winter weather weather without artificial None lambs survived survived the winter, adults of the lambs winter, but all the adults discomfort as indicated shivering, did. Cold was a discomfort indicated by shivering, but not particularly particularly debilitating. debilitating. The sheep sheep seemed seemed comparatively good condition while native to be in comparatively deer showed signs of malnutrition some died. deer signs of malnutrition and some These facts facts show that that cold weather weather,7 though not criticritiThese Barbaries, might act to keep the herds herds cal for adult Barbaries, are born spring. in check by killing killing young that are born after after spring. There is no doubt that the Barbary's Barbary's food habits habits There are in direct direct competition competition with dee1 deer· and livestock livestock are 2). The sheep have proved proved to be excellent excellent for(Fig. 2). foragers and, although the proportion proportion of forage forage types agers types varies throughout the year, year, their their diet consists consists mainly varies browse (48%) (48%)and grass (42%) (42%)with of browse and grass with a minor amount forbs and incidentals incidentals (1 (10%). most of the of forbs 0%). During most year browse is the major major item in their their diet diet with oak year browse (Quercus undulata) being most abundant and mountain (Cercocarpus breviflorus), breviflorus), a preferred preferred mahogany (Cercocarpus deer browse, browse, second. In the Canadian River River country country deer of New plentiful and m mountain of New Mexico oak is plentiful ountain mahogany relatively scarce. scarce. However, the diffe1 difference perrelatively ·ence in the peringestion m of these these two did not reflect reflect their cent of ingestion their COMPETITION AND SURVIVALFACTORS COMPETITION AND SURVIVAL FACTORS successful and beneficial beneficial exotic inThe key to a successful troduction is the vacant vacant ecologic ecologic niche, and a truly troduction truly vacant niche is difficult difficult to find. The ideal ideal situation situation is one where where survival factors are are sufficient maintain survival factors sufficient to maintain a healthy population, decimating decimating factors are effective effective factors are enough to control control the population and competition competition with enough native species species is absent. absent. So So far, studies indicate indicate that far, studies Barbary is is more more prolific prolific and aa better competitor the Barbary better competitor than our native bighorns bighorns and deer. deer. major predators predators in Barbary Barbary sheep sheep range are are The major black bear (Ursus americana), americana), mountain mountain lion (Pelis (Felis black bear (Ursus concolor), coyote (~anis (Canis latrans), (Uroeyon concolor), latrans), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 'bobcat (Lynx' rufus) badger cinereoargenteus), bobcat (Lynx rufus) and badger (Taxidea taxus). taxus). These exert a very very minor minor control control on (Taxidea These exert sheep numbers. numbers. In New these sheep New Mexico predation predation by these animals is unknown. eyesight, strong strong inanimals unknown. The keen eyesight, stinct to protect stinct protect the young, and the rugged terrain terrain these predator at a disdisthese sheep inhabit places places the predator tinct disadvantage. tinct disadvantage. studies to date the Barbary Barbary sheep sheep has proved In all studies proved to be highly resistant infectious diseases. diseases. In Texas, resistant to infectious Texas, tests failed disclose any cases cases of brucellosis blood tests failed to disclose brucellosis disease) or leptospirosis. leptospirosis. All intestinal intestinal para(bangs disease) parasites identified were types types found in native wildlife, wildlife, sites identified were 0 Browse □ Bro,tiia Grass m Grau m m! Forb. E Forb• • Misceilaneoul Ml•~•llanuu1 preferences of of the Barbary Barbary Fig. 2. Food preferences throughout the year year (Ogren (Ogren, 1965). 1965). throughout sheep �relative preferred species species were were relative abundance. When When preferred present the sheep ignored ignored sagebrush (Artemesia sp.) present sagebrus h (Artemesia sp.) and juniper (Juniperus sp.). sp.). In addition to this comjuniper (Juniperus petition for food the sheep is a coarse coarse feeder feeder and petition inflicts a lot of of unnecessary unnecessary damage to one plant often inflicts before before moving on to the next. .In grass is by far far the major major item (86%) In the winter winter grass item (86%) farmer lost lost five acres acres of winter winter wheat One farmer of the diet. One to Barbary Barbary sheep depredation. depredation. studying Barbary In the opinion of most men studyi ng the Barbary sheep it does not pose a serious, direct threat sheep serious, direct threat to either deer deer or livestock. livestock. In New either New Mexico and Texas, Texas, under normal conditions, conditions, the sheep sheep occupied the most under normal terrain just deer rugged terrain just below the lip of the canyon, deer mostly in the intermediate intermediate zone on on the sides sides of of were mostly walls,, and livestock livestock were bottoms were in the bottoms the canyon walls on the more more level land above the canyons. or on Water is not a critical critical item in the diet of the Water Barbary. Though they will drink drink large Barbary. large quantities quantities if it available, evidence evidence indicates indicates that that they can survive survive is available, practically no free free water. capturing the with practically water. When When capturing sheep for New New Mexico's Mexico's project project all possible sheep possible water water holes in their their pasture closed except one. For holes pasture were were closed of the hottest hottest weather weather this six weeks of this one water water hole was watched constantly constantly around the clock. In that time not one sheep sheep was seen seen to visit visit the water. water. (de (de time !ll al. 1956; Ogren 1962, 1962, 1965; 1965; Blunt 1963, 1963, 1964; 1964; al, 1956; Vos fil 1967) Evans 1967) PROPONENTS' AND OPPONENTS' OPPONENTS' OPINIONS OPINIONS PROPO'tll"ENTS' AND There are are mixed opinions as to the desirability of There desirability of Barbary species. Nevada Barbary sheep as a new, big-game big- game species. Barbaries, but the state state is considering releashas no Barbaries, considering releasing some some in areas areas that that have no game. If the animals animals could be contained contained in these these areas, release areas, such a release seems ideal. ideal. If, on the other other hand, they spill spill over seems over into range presently occupied by native, native, desert bigrange presently desert bighorns,, results results could be undesirable. undesirable. New New Mexico and horns Texas far their their game departdepartTexas have wild herds herds and so far ments are satisfied that releases were were a good good idea. ments are satisfied that the releases Those who Barbary in this country who have hunted the Barbary this country return with glowing reports. reports. The extremely extremely rough return terrain inhabited by these wariness terrain inhabited these creatures, creatures, their their wariness eyesight make hunting them a challenge. challenge. A and keen eyesight poll of hunters hunters revealed revealed that that the meat meat of of the Barbary Barbary excellent. sheep was excellent. New Barbary New Mexico had four open seasons seasons on the Barbary between 1957 1957 and 1960. 1960. Shortly Shortly after after this this the numbers numbers declined sharply. sharply. It was not until until March 1967 1967 of sheep declined that another another season season was opened. Thirty Thirty permits were that permits were issued out of 166 166 applicants. applicants. de Vos et al cite other: issued cite other: cases where of a successfully successfully introintrocases where the population of species rapidly rapidly increased increased then then leveled off to a duced species leveled off moderate to rare rare abundance. point of moderate abundance. cause of the decline decline in Barbary Barbary numbers The cause numbers has not been pinpointed. However, the suspicion suspicion that the animals emigrated emigrated has not been substantiated. animals substantiated. In Southwestt Game Management the Southwes Management Region of Colorado Colorado Barbary sighting sighting has been submitted, one report report of a Barbary submitted, confirmed. In the Southeast but never never confirmed. Southeast Region two rere ports have been turned never confirmed, ports turned in. One was never confirmed, other was verified verified by Ogren April 1959. but the other Ogren in April on the Don This sheep sheep had wintered wintered on Don Berg Berg pasture pasture in vicinity of Raton Pass. Pass. the vicinity There are Colorado There are few if any areas areas in Arizona, Arizona, Colorado that are are without native native big game. Very or Wyoming Wyoming that little is known known about the the possible possible effect on own little on our own of the introduction introduction of Barbary Barbary sheep sheep,1 so the big game of tbe managers of these. these states states doubt the wisdom of game managers step. It is usually usually more economical to ensuch a step. more econowical courage a native species species than to introduce courage introduce a new Therefore, it seems seems wiser wiser to co11centrate concentrate on on a one. Therefore, more management of of our namore thorough study of the management species. (de (de Vos ~t al. 1956; 1956; Ogren Ogren 1962, 1962, 1965i 1965; tive species. Craighead and Dasmann 1965; 1965; Evans 1967) 1967) Craighead LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE Blunt, Floyd M. 1963. Barbary Barbary sheep sheep .. •.. . not in WyoWyoM. 1963. 27(6): 28-31. ming, we hope. hope . Wyoming Wildl, Wild.l. 27(6): ____ _ . 1964. 1964. Barbary Barbary sheep sheep study. Wyoming Game _ and Fish Comm.,, Job Completion Rept., P.-R. P.-R. a11d Fish Comm. Project W-69-R-6. W-69-R-6. 16-19. Typewr Typewritten. Project itten. Craighead, Frank Dasmann. 1965. 1965. Craighead, Frank C. and Raymond F. Dasmann. Exotic big game on public lands. ofthe Exotic lands, Proc. Proc. of the Nat'l, Nat'l. Advisory (BLM). 25th Annual. Appendix Advisory Council (BLM). No. 10, 10. 13p, 13p. No. Antoon, Richard H. Manville and Richard de Vos, Antoon, Richard H. Richard G. G. Van Gelder. 19 1956. Introduced mammals mammals and their their Van Gelder. 56. 1ntroduced biota. Zoologica 41(4): 41(4): 163-194. influence on native biota. Evans, Phil. 1967. Pursue Pursue the aoudads. Texas Texas Parks Parks Evans, Phil. 1967. 25(2): 20-23. and Wildl. Wildl, 25(2): A. 1962. 1962. Barbary Barbary sheep New MexOgren, Herman A. sheep in New New Mexico Dept. of Game and Fish Fish Bull. ico. New 11. ii ++ 32p. 11. 32p. 1965. Barbary Barbary sheep. sheep. New New Mexico Dept. of _____ _ . 1965, Fish Bull. Bull, 13. 13. ii + 117p. Game and Fish + 117p. David F. Gordon Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate April, 1967 April, 1967 �Outdoor F· Facts J PUBLISHED PU BY V THE THE COLORADO COO AO -AM GAME, ,Iff FISH DEPT. AR S OEPT. · SH anda PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet ." Number Number 52 AIDS FOR FOR TI-IE THE ROCKY ROCKY MOU MOUNTAIN BIGHORN SHEEP SHEEP HUNTER HUNTER AIDS TAIN BIGHORN 1/ IN COLORADO COLORADO IN THE BIGHORN BIGHORN-- ITS ITS ffiSTORY HISTORYAND THE AND HABITS HABITS Rocky Mountain Bighorn, Ovis canadensis canadensis The Rocky canadensis, is the largest largest of of our North American American canadensis, sheep, carrying massive and impressive horns, and sheep, carrying massive impres sive horns, eagerly sought by the big game trophy hunter. hunter. Bigeagerly horns are are sizable sizable animals; animals; a large large ram ram will stand stand 41 41 horns inches at the shoulder shoulder and weigh nearly nearly 300 pounds, inches stands about 35 inches at the shoulder shoulder while a ewe stands 35 inches and weighs about 130 130 pounds. Horns of bighorn bighorn sheep sheep are permanent, permanent, and unlike antlers antlers are are not not shed annu are ally. Both sexes sexes have horns horns which continue to grow throughout the lifetime lifetime of animal. Those for fethroughout of the animal. males, never attain massive size size of males, however, never attain the massive horns characteristic characteristic of of the male. horns 1953, the first first legal bighorn bighorn sheep season season since since In 1953, 1885 was authorized authorized by the Colorado Colorado Game and Fish Fish 1885 Commission. Hunting licenses licenses were Commission. were issued issued through drawing and and limited limited to residents residents of Colorado. Colorado. During first modern season, 58 rams rams we were harvested. this first season, 58 re harvested. A bighorn bighorn sheep season season has been held annually since since A 1958 and the overall overall average average success success for hunters 1958 hunters has 22 percent. percent. been about 22 Records show four major major die-offs occurred Records show die-offs have occurred herds in Colorado Colorado during during recorded recorded among bighorn bighorn herds history. The first first three three were 1885, the early early history. were in 1885, winter of These de1900's and during the winter of 1923-24. These clines were were attributed attributed to septicemia septicemia and scabies, clines scabies, cause most likely was lungworm and and although the cause subsequent penumonia. The latest latest decline decline began in subsequent 1952 on Pike's Pike's Peak Peak as the result of lungworm caused caused result oflungworm 1952 disease spreading pneumonia, with the disease spreading to the Tarryall Tarryall cause of this this latest latest die-off die-off was definitely definitely Range. The cause established through through research research conducted and reported established reported Pillmore (1958, (1958, 1959). 1959). All epidemics epidemics greatly greatly rereby Pillmore bighorn populations. populations. duced bighorn contribution of 1/ A contribution of the Game Management Division Fed. Aid Research Research Proj. Proj. W-41-R. and F ed, Aid W-41-R. Although the Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks Department Department Although has experimented, experimented, and is experimenting, experimenting, with various various control techniques, techniques, no system system of management management yet control devised completely control control parasites parasites or other other devised will completely causes of natural mortality. mortality. Controlled hunting, causes of natural Controlled presently however, is one management management technique technique presently employed to help control control the epidemic epidemic spread of lungspread of disease and pneumonia. An annual annual worm parasitism, parasitism, disease hunting season season reduces reduces the size herd by taking taking size of the herd surplus rams rams and assists scattering the sheep, sheep, surplus assists in scattering thus presenting presenting high concentration concentration of of animals animals and lessening the chance for spread spread of of disease. disease. Also, the lessening open season hunter to season gives an opportunity opportunity for the hunter harvest old mature mature rams rams with trophy heads, and to harvest trophy heads, palatable meat otherwise would be lost. lost. obtain palatable meat which otherwise �bighorn, unlike deer deer and elk, is an .aanimal The bighorn, nimal of erratic and unpredictable unpredictable habits. habits. There There are, are, nonethenonetheerratic less, a few behavorial patterns patterns that are are relatively relatively less, few bebavorial constant and provide hunter. Two constant provide tips tips of value to the hunter. Two habits are followed consistently consistently are are the noonhabits which are seeking out of an established established bedbedday rest rest and the seeking rest is a complete ground at night. The noon-day rest complete cessation for an hour or two in the day's day's activity, activity, cessation most of of the other other resting resting periods periods are are broken while most by occasional occasional ieeding feeding periods. periods. Sheep generally generally start start shortly after after sun-up feeding shortly sun-up and continue feeding Older rams, rams, however, until mid-morning. mid-morning. Older however , will often not move from their their bed until until the morning morning sunshine sunshine short time. time. During sunny days, has hit them for a short sheep bed down down from noon until late afternoon afternoon,, at sheep noon until which time time they commence commence feeding until dark. dark. A rule rule of thumb on on shee_p sheep movements movements during during mid-day mid-day periods periods relates to "rest "rest during during sunny periods" periods" and moverelates ment" when cloud cover 1962). ment" cover is present present (Moser, 1962). As good good stands stands of grasses grasses and sedges sedges are are extremely important making up the main portion portion of of tremely important in making sheep's diet diet, bunt hunt windswept ridges ridges with good good the sheep's grassy cover cover and hidden pockets grassy pockets of lush vegetation. vegetation. One of the best places to find trophy rams is at timtimOne best places trophy rams berline. near timberline timberline in early early morning morning berline. By By hunting near and late late evening, the hunter average hunter has a better better than average of finding a ram. ram. On On very windy windy days, sheep sheep chance of normally will be io in the canyon areas areas and and on on the lee normally sheltered side. or sheltered side, Rams usually usually will not be with the ewes, lambs lambs and very young young rams rams during during tbe the hunting season, season, as breedbreedvery activity usually usually commences commences dut'ing during the second ing activity week of reaching its of November, November reaching its peak during the December, and tapering tapering off around second week in December, first of of January. January. Therefore, Therefore, hunters durthe first hunters hunting during the August and September September season season should look for the lone ram ram as his potential potential trophy animal. animal. Bighorns seem seem to rely eyesight Bighorns rely upon their their keen eyesight for protection greater degree degree than eHber either scent scent for protection to a greater possible exception of the prongprongor hearing. hearing-. With the possible exception of horn, these animals probably have the most highly these animals sight of all big game animals animals.. The slightest slightest developed sight movement can be detected detected at great great distances distances and a movement open will be noted when he is more more than than man in the open away.. a mile away Bighorns prefer prefer to look down down on on surrounding surrounding Bighorns country and will often stand stand motionless country motionless watching the stalking hunter. hunter goes out of stalking hunter. As soon as the hunter of sight, sheep withdraw to a higher different sight sheep usually usually withdraw higher or different ridge and may completely completely disappear. disappear. For For this reason, ridge this reason, once' •the hunter spotted by the once hunter knows he has been spotted sheep, he should attempt attempt to stay stay in its its sight sight while he sheep, approaches close close enough to obtain a shot. approaches frequently allow hunters hunters to pass pass below them Sheep frequently while they lie above, immobile completely camoucamouimmobile and completely their neutral neutral brown colors. colors. Usually, one flaged by their hunt up-country up-country and attempt attempt to stay stay below or or sshould hould bunt across fr from bighorns. With this this approach, approach, rams rams are are across om bighorns. less likely to be disturbed disturbed than when pursued less likely pursued from normal retreat retreat areas areas above them. normal Good binoculars binoculars are are essential essential for hunting sheep, Good scope is highly recommended. recommended. A A hunter and a spotting spotting scope hunter time "glassing country" than than should spend more more time "glassing tthe he country" simply moving through simply through it. it. CARE OF BIGHORN BIGHORNTROPHIES CARE TROPHIES ram depends greatly greatly on on The quality of the trophy trophy ram after the animal what the hunter hunter does after animal is taken. Following are are a few few suggestions suggestions for taking care care of Colorado's finest big game trophy. trophy. Colorado's finest (1) All cuts made while dressing dressing your sheep sheep must must be (1) made so that that the trophy or uninjured. For For this or hide is uninjured. reason the first first rule rule is to never never cut the throat. throat. The reason carcass should be bled thoroughly, carcass thoroughly, however, and body lowered as rapidly rapidly as possible. abdominal heat lowered possible. The abdominal incision should never never be cut any any further incision further forward forward than sternum at the rear rear edge of the rib the point of the sternum sure to remove internal organs. cage. Be sure remove all internal organs. Cut off the windpipe and esophagus esophagus as far far forward possible. forward as possible. (2) Make Make a single cut from (2) from a point just just on top of the shoulders up the back of the neck to a point about 3 shoulders inches back of the horns. running to inches horns. Make a ''V' V' cut running base of each horn as indicated indicated on on the diagram. diagram. the base Again, at top center center at the shoulders, shoulders, cut through through the hide on on each side down down toward toward the animal's animal's chest chest as far center of of the shoulders. shoulders. Bring Bring these far back as the center these cuts together together well back of the chest chest or brisket. brisket. Do Do not split split the hide along the underside underside of the neck or not cut the head off before before skinning. (3) After these cuts are are made, the neck is is (3) these initial initial cuts carefully skinned until last joint carefully until the last joint behind the skull skull reached. The head is then cut and twisted free, is reached. twis ted free, integral with the cape. leaving the head and horns horns integral (4) If your trophy cannot be taken to a taxidermist (4) taxidermist immediately, the entire entire head should be com_pletely completely immediately, skinned out. Cut around horns carefully, using skinned horns carefully, using a screwdriver or blunt blunt instrument instrument to pry tbe the skio skin loose screwdriver around the horns horns without cutting skin. Cut off off becutting the skin. close to the skull and trim trim meat and neath the ears ears close heavy cartilage cartilage away away at the base. base. Go Go down down the skull, folding the skin forward forward as you work. Be careful careful not especially around the eyes. eyes. to cut through the skin, especially Use your fingers fingers as a guide on the outs outside of the skin, ide of feel you are are not cutting through. Cut ssoo that you can feel cutting through. close to the skull, inside skin on the the lips lips close skull, leaving inside lips attached attached to the hide. Pass lips Pass the knife between outer skin and inner lips. Be outer inner mucous lining of the lips. sure and leave the cape long. Include the brisket brisket and sure plenty of of skin back of the base of neck, especially especially base of shoulder mount is desired. desired. when a full shoulder (5) Remove all loos loosee flesh, attention to (5) flesh, giving your attention rather than the skull. skull. As paper or the cape rather paper mache or synthetic forms forms are are used synthetic used in mounting only the top of skull is needed. Salt the entire entire flesh side of the tthe he skull flesh side �Outdooi~ Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE [ q::J COLORADO COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. 1/4 ,=-ULL ,=-LJLL 1/2 3/4 A telescopic telescopic sight sight having having aa cross-hair cross-hair reticle reticle provides provides aa good good A guide guide in determining determining whether whether a ram· ram is is legal legal.. Place Place the horizon1tal horizontal cross-hair bisects the eye and intersects intersects with with the crosshair so that it bisects vertical crosscross-hair base of the ear, as in the above above diagram. diagram. vertical hair at the base Consult Consult current current hunting hunting regulations regulations as to the legality legality 6f of half-curl half-curl these regulations regulations may may vary vary from year year to year. rams, as these �7 �pelt thoroughly (common table salt salt is fine) clear clear to pelt the edges, and into every every pocket, eye, ear, ear, nostril nostril salting, leave rolled rolled for aa few hours. hours. and lip. After salting, It is wise to unroll unroll the hide, check for folds, and unsalted hen re-salt. salted spots, spots, tthen re-salt. Be careful careful not to let the skin dry in folds and wrinkles. wrinkles. Do Do not expose cape to hot sunlight or aa fire, fire, but do keep it off off the ground and and in the shade. shade. (6) Take measurements measurements prior prior to skinning, especially especially (6) from from corner corner of of the eye to tip of of nose, ear ear to ear ear at the base, base, across across back of of neck and several several places places around the neck. Take to aa taxidermist taxidermist as rapidly rapidly as possible. possible. 1/ 1/22 CURL CURL The ears ears and head appear appear large large in comparison comparison to the size size of the liorns. horns. The horns horns are are small, small, slender slender and generally generally pointed at the tips. tips. They lack massiveness massiveness except at the base. base. 3/4 3/4 CURL CURL SELECTING A LEGAL LEGAL AND AND TROPHY TROPHY RAM RAM SELECTING skill of the hunter hunter in selecting selecting aa legal legal or The skill trophy ram ram is dependent on his ability ability to judge the trophy size and curl curl of of the horn. In Colorado's Colorado's management management size program program this this normally normally. means he should be able to accurately accurately determine determine the 3/ 3/44 curl curl class. class. Although Although proper proper management management generally generally is dependent upon selecting lecting 3/ 3/44 curl curl rams rams or larger, larger, some seasons seasons have and may allow the taking taking of 1/ 1/22 curl curl rams rams or even either sex animals. animals. (Annual (Annual hunting regulations regulations should either be carefully carefully studied studied to determine determine size size classes classes for legal animals.) animals.) legal Horns are are still still slender slender and not broomed broomed at the tips. tips. are fairly fairly massive massive at a point halfway through through Horns are the curl. curl. The horns of of young animals, animals, although they may even be over over 3/ 3/44 curl, curl, are are sharply sharply pointed and very very thin beyond the halfway point. The horn tips tips extend below and beyond the base base of of the ear ear when viewed from from the side. Tips Tips of horns horns have not started started upsweep. general rule rule of thumb when determini. determining whether A general ng whether or not aa ram ram meets meets the 3/ 3/44 curl curl requirement requirement is to note if the tips tips of the horns curve around at least least to aa point below the base base of the ear ear when viewed from the side. side. The future future of Rocky Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep hunting depends not only on on the effort, effort, expense and thought put into the management management of Colorado's Colorado's state state animal, but also also upon upon the harvest harvest of animals animals which may safely safely be removed removed from from the herd herd - the old, trophy rams. rams. trophy Study these pictures carefully; carefully; they will aid you in Study these pictures selecting selecting your trophy trophy ram. FULL CURL CURL Massive Massive horn growth at aa point point halfway through through the curl curl and beyond. Tips thick, blunt or broomed broomed and upswept. Horn tips tips come well beyond a point below the base base of the ear ear when viewed from the side, side. The back and lower portion portion of the the jaw usually usually obscured, obscured, as the bottom of the horn curl curl is below the lower jar jar line. �HUNTING HUNTING REGULATIONS REGULATIONS HOW BOW YOU YOU CAN CAN AID AID MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT License License requirements requirements -- Bighorn Bighorn sheep sheep licenses licenses are are issued issued in in limited limited numbers numbers by by area. area. Approximately Approximately 33 33 hunting areas have have been been designated designated by by the the Game, Ga.me Fish Fish hunting areas and and Parks Parks Commission Commission and and are are managed managed separately. separately. Licenses Licenses are are issued issued only only through through aa public public drawing drawing and and the the hunter hunter must mus t apply apply by by area. area. As As aa bighorn bighorn sheep sheep hunter, hWlter, you you can can give give game game management management aa vital vital assist assist by by harvesting harvesting only only the the old, old, mature mature rams rams and and by by reporting reporting the the success success -- or or failure failure -- of of your your hunt. hunt. Simply Simply complete complete and and return return the the "report "report card" card" attached attached to to your your license. license. AddiAdditional tional information information is is often often sought sought through through special special questionnaires. questionnaires. Your Your answers answers help help in in determining determining location location of of sheep sheep concentration concentration areas areas and and numbers, numbers, age age and and sex sex ratios ratios in in the the herd, herd, and and other other inforinformation mation of of value value in in maintaining maintaining quality quality hunting hunting for for the the trophy trophy ram. ram. Sheep Sheep hunting hunting licenses licenses are are restricted restricted to to residents residents only only and and cost cost $40.00. $40.00, AA "Resident" "Resident" is is any any person person who who has has maintained maintained aa bona bona fide fide domicile domicile in in the the State State of of Colorado Colorado for for six six months months immediately immediately preceding preceding the the date date of of application, application, and and who who does does not not claim claim residency residency in in another another state. state. Manner Manner of of Taking Taking -- Hunting Hunting hours hours for for bighorn bighorn sheep sheep are are from from one-half one-half hour hour before before sunrise sunrise to to one-half one-half hour hour after after sunset. sunset. Sheep Sheep may may be be taken taken with with nonnonmechanical mechanical bow bow and and broadhead broadhead hunting hunting arrow, arrow, shotshotgun, gun, muzzle muzzle loading loading rifles rifles of of .40 .40 caliber caliber or or larger, larger, or or with with aa rifle rifle using using centerfire centerfire ammunition ammunition having having soft-nosed soft-nosed bullets bullets of of more more than than 70 70 grains grains and and with with aa rated rated impact impact energy energy of of more more than than 1000-foot 1000-foot pounds pounds 100 yards from from the the muzzle. muzzle. 100 yards Use Use of of Aircraft Aircraft and and Motor Motor Vehicles Vehicles - ItIt is is unlawful unlawful to to take talce any any protected protectea game game by oy use use of of any any aircraft aircraft or or motor motor vehicle. vehicle. ItIt is is also also illegal illegal to to operate operate any any airaircraft craft below below an an altitude altitude of of 500 500 feet feet in in aa manner manner inintended tended to to frighten, frighten, disturb, disturb, harass harass or or drive drive any any protected protected game. game. ItIt is is unlawful unlawful to to discharge discharge any any firefire arm arm or or release release an an arrow arrow from from any any aircraft aircraft or or motor motor vehicle, vehicle, or or from, from upon upon or or across across any any public public road road or or highway highway with with the the intent intent to to take take protected protected game. game. Motor Motor vehicles vehicles are are prohibited prohibited within within any any wild wild or or wilderness wilderness area. area. Tagging When any Tagging Regulations Regulations -- When any person person kills kills a bigbighorn horn sheep, sheep, he he shall shall immediately immediately detach, detach, sign sign and and date date the the carcass carcass tag tag from from his his license. license. This This tag tag must must be be attached attached to to the the carcass carcass of the the animal animal before before itit is is transported any vehicle, transported in in any vehicle, while while in in camp, camp, at at a residence residence or or other other place place of storage. storage. Robert Robert J.J. Tully Tully Principal Principal Game Game Biologist Biologist L. L. Dale Dale Hibbs Hibbs Assistant Assistant Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher George George W. W. Jones Jones Game Game Biologist Biologist May, May 1967 1967 LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Moser, Moser, Clifford Clifford A. A. 1962. 1962. The The bighorn bighorn sheep sheep of of ColoColorado. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dep. Tech. rado. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dep. Tech. Pub. Pub. No. No, 10. 10. 49 49 p. p. Pillmore, Fillmore, Richard Richard E. E . 1958. 1958. Lungworm Lungworm in in bighorn bighorn sheep. No. 10, sheep. Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet No. 10, Outdoor Outdoor Facts Facts Series, Series, Colo. Colo. Game, Game, Fish Fish & & Parks Parks Dep. Dep. __ Lungworm and _ _ .. 1959. 1959. LungWorm and lambs. lambs. Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet No. No. 13, 13, Outdoor Outdoor Facts Facts Series, Series, Colo. Colo. Gam~, Ga.mi:, Fish Fish & & Parks Parks Dep. Dep. �--------- ...-.~ __ .- . - L.-o- '. . ~ '\ - --· ~ ~ ~- .. ~ ----:. _, - ':':.J .J -- ~ ..----;- ~. ~~~aet$ -r ~Fac.ts ~~~z(; > PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF WilDLIFE DIVISION OF WILDLIFE ~ Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet ,Ff/ l. r~ .... I [ , '':.'' ~ " Number 53 Number 53 EFFECTS OF OF HUNTING HUNTING ON THE THE SELECTION SELECTION OF OF EFFECTS RESTING AREAS AREAS BY MALLARDS MALLARDS IN IN WEST-CENTRAL WEST-CENTRAL COLORADO RESTING COLORADO Aerial 1952 through 1967 1967 show show Aerial counts made from 1952 estimated 6,805 6,805 to 19,350 19,350 ducks, mostly mallards, an estimated mallards, winter annually in west-central Numbers winter west-central Colorado. Numbers averaged 12,540 12,540, based 13 January January counts made averaged based on 13 during this period. Migration into the area area begins during period. Migration mid-October, reaching reaching peak numbe numbers during mid-October, rs about the second week in November. Once Once in the area, area, most birds remain until their their northward northward migration most birds remain migration spring. in the spring. Generally speaking, ducks winter winter in two major major Generally speaking, areas in western western Colorado, Colorado. One rests on the areas One group rests Mesa County, County, feeding in the Grand Colorado River River in Mesa farming area. area. The other other major Valley farming major flock finds suitable water on the Gunnison Gunnison River River and its tributribusuitable water on taries in Delta and Montrose Montrose counties, counties, feeding in the taries Gunnison River and Uncompahgre River River Valleys. Valleys. Substantiation of this this movement, as influenced by Substantiation during the 1959 1959season pressure was obtained during season hunting pressure, discussions with hunters, hunters, from personal personal hunting by discussions experience, by a special special trip trip into Black Canyon area area experience, on December December 11 and 2, and from five aerial aerial counts; on three conducted during the open season season and two made three following the hunting period. period. Aerial Aerial counts of ducks were recorded separately for sections rivers were recorded separately sections of rivers classified as inaccessible, semi-accessible and acclassified inaccessible, semi-accessible cessible. The classification classification system cessible. system was based based on ease secease with which hunters hunters could get to the various various sections of of river, river, as determined determined primarily sheerness tions primarily by sheerness access roads roads and trails of canyon walls, walls, although access trails were given some consideration. consideration. Data were recorded were were recorded special form form shown in Figure Figure 2. on a special Prior to and during during the early 1950's, main waterwaterPrior early 1950's, fowl resting areas were relatively relatively accessible accessible to fowl resting areas waterfowl hunters. hunters. Ducks feeding in the Grand Valley waterfowl settled mainly between Grand Junction Junction and Mack and settled Horsethief Canyon Canyon and the upper portion portion of Ruby Ruby in Horsethief Canyon on the Colorado River. River. Mallards Mallards which fed in Canyon Gunnison and Uncompahgre River River Valleys Valleys found found the Gunnison suitable resting resting sites sites on the Gunnison Gunnison River between suitable Escalante Creek Creek and Roubideau Roubideau Creek, Creek, as well as in Escalante other accessible accessible areas areas on the Gunnison Gunnison and its tributribuother taries. Completion of the dam for Sweitzer taries. Sweitzer Lake in 1954, 1954, and filling filling of of this impoundment, provided additional, major major resting resting area area for waterfowl an additional, waterfowl in Delta County. As hunting pr pressure increased in western western Colorado essure increased during the mid-1950's, increasduring mid- l 950's ducks withdrew at an increasareas less less accessible accessible to ing annual rate rate into the areas hunters. By By 1959, 1959, following a few few days of of shotgun hunters. bombardment during bombardment during the open season, season, the majority majority of of west-central Colorado area area retreated retreated to ducks in the west-central rugged, inaccessible inaccessible canyon areas areas during during shooting hours. The popular popular retreat retreat for Grand Valley mallards hours. mallards consisted of the lower portion portion of Ruby Ruby Canyon in consisted utah. For For mallards Gunnison and Colorado and utah. mallards in the Gunnison areas, the Black Canyon with Uncompahgre Valley areas, Black Canyon sheer, thousand-foot walls provided provided shotgun immunity. immunity. sheer, thousand-foot 1. Sheer canyon walls protect wintering mallards mallards Fig. 1. protect wintering Gunnison, December December 1, 1, 1959. 1959. in Black Canyon Canyon of Gunnison, �ACCESSIBLE ACCESSIBLE _ __ INACCESSIBLE INACCESSIBLE I I I ,c ,o:i XI~ <ll..J i-,o _:)[_ SENISENlINACCESSIBLE ACCESSI tllACt;ESSISLE ACCESS ACCESSIBLE ACCESSIBLE DATE OF' OF COUNT .• OATE , , _ _ _ __ _ TIlliE STARTED .. _ TIIIE STARTED •• - - - - TINE FINISHED .• _ T'INE FIIIIISHED . · - - - - PiLOT ••.•.•..• PILOT • •• , • , •. · - - - -- _ OBSERVER(S) .•. OBSERVER(S) . . · - - - -- _ DUCKS COUNTED' COUNTED' ACCESSIBLE ACCESSIBLE AREAS AREAS ...... . . .. _ ___ SENI-ACCESSIBLE AREAS - - _ AREAS 9£1111-ACCESSIBI.£ INACCESSIBLE INACCESSIBLE AREAS AREAS •.. . , . - -_TOTAL .••••••••.•••. TOTAL .. .• ....• • . . _ AERIAL SURVEY FORM FOR FOR WATERFOWL. COLORADO AERIAL SURVEY FORM WATERFOWL, WEST-CENTRAL WEST-CENTRAL COLORADO wws Fig. 2. data during aerial counts,, 1959 1959 and 1960. 1960. 2. Special form used to record record data aerial COWlts DISTRIBUTION OF DUCKSDUCKS BY TYPE TYPE OF RESTING RESTING DISTRIBUTION ALL AU. TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL ACCESSIBLE OF DUCKS ACCESSIBLE DATE AREAS AREAS SEMISt:MIACCESSIBLE ACCESSIBLE OCTOBER 29, 29, 1959 1959 OCTOBS:R (3RD (3RD DAY DAV OF SEASON) SEASON! 5,300 !5,300 I I NOVEMBER 12, 1959 NOVEMBER (18TH DAY OF SEASON) SEASON) (18TH 0/ll/ 15,219 15,219 = =5% 5% 16% 16% 14,646 14,644, = = ~ ~ NOVEMBER 25, 25, 1959 1959 NOVEJIIBER (31 ST Olff DAY CF OF SEASON SEASON)l (31ST l n-i: 15, 1959 )15,512 5,~12 37% 37% 22%22%· JANUARY 6, 6, 1960 JANUllR~ 1960 (23RD DAY SEl190N I (23RD DAY AFTER AF:TER SEASON) 10,625 10,825 II = 10% DECEMBER 5 1 9 SEASON 0 ffs~M~~ (1ST DAY AFTER SEASON), ~% 6!1% 6% 6% ~ ~ 90°4 90°4 = = 9% 9% INACCESSIBLE INACCESSIBLE ~ ~ 26% 26% 14% I ♦% II II ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .~ AREAS AREAS WITHIN PROPOSED PROPOSED WITHIN RESTRICTED HUNTING AREAS RESTRICTED HUNTING SWEITZER SWEITZER LAKE (RESTRICTED) (RESTRICTED) WIKE ~ ~ ~ ~ 16% 16% 15% 16% 79% 79% 3% 11% ..3% 3% 80% 800/o 1% 1% .4% .4% ~ ISm 41% 4 1% 11% 11 % 3% 3% 0% II .4% .4% ~ 10% J/ AREA.!I AREA SPECIAL SPECIAL 55% 55% DUCKS JJ PERCENTAGES RELATE TOTAL l/ ALL ALL PERCENTAGES RELATE TO TOTAL DUCIIS restricted shooting on No restricted of mallard mallard ducks during and after 1959 waterfowl season. season. No after the 1959 Fig. 3. Movement of Gunnison Rivers. Rivers. Colorado or Gunnison �An estimated 10,000 10,000 mallards mallards were seeking proproAn estimated tection Canyon of the Gunnis Gunnison tection in the Black Canyon of tJ1e on when when the two-day check of this flock was made (Figs. 11 and 6). 6). of daily exit and entrance of ducks into the Timing of entrance of canyon area area showed showed birds canyon birds started stru·ted their their exit flight to feeding areas areas at about 4:55 4:55 p.m. p.m., completing depardeparture approximately 30 30 minutes later. later. Evening shootture approximately early reentry reentry ing ended at 4:36 4:36 p.m. In the morning early flights arrived arrived at 6:55 6:55 a.rn. a.m. and and return return flights were 7:20 a.m. Morning shooting comcompleted about about 7:20 7:03 a.m. menced at 7:03 of mallards relationship to acThe movement of mallards in relationship cessibility to hw1ting hunting areas areas during the 1959 1959 hunting cessibility illustrated in Figure Figure 3. Birds moved moved season is illustrated 3. Birds inaccessible areas areas following following the opening opening oi of rapidly to inaccessible the hunting season. season. They returned returned to preferred preferred restrestareas, generally generally accessible accessible to hunters, hunters, shortly shortly ing areas, after closure closure of of the season. after ~.'f .r ~ ~ \ areas in west-central west- central Colorado Fig. 4. Main waterfowl areas and "Restricted "Restricted Hunting" areas, areas, 1960 1960 hunting season. season. and DISTRIBUTION OF DUCKS BY TYPE OF RESTING RESTING lllSlRIBUTION OF BT TYPE ALL AREAS ALL AREAS DATE DATE TOT AL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER ACCESSIBLE IICCESSIBLE OF DUCKS SEMISEMIACCESSIBLE ACC ESSI BL E OCTOBER 25, 25, 1960 1960 OCTOBER DAY BEFORE SEASON) BEFORE SEASON) ((I I OAY 1,894 1,894 II OCTOBER 28, 1960 1960 OCTOBER 28, (3 RD DAY OF SEASON) (3 OF SEASON~ LEGAL HUNTI HUNTING) ((I I DAY LEGAL G) 5,707 5,707 I NRj~~B~~y1I ~~ ~F 1 I~~~SON N~~Bt~v ~iisoNl1 11,320 11,320 Nfl~f~E~A~BbiJ9liASON) ( 10 DAYS LEGAL HUNTING) 11,:505 51% 27% 27% 11,840 ll,B40 ~ ~ ~ NOVEMBER 28, 28, 1960 1960 NOVEMBER OF SEASON SEASON) ) ((35 35 TH DAY OF HUNTING)) LEGAL HUNTING ((16 16 DAYS LEGAL 23% 26% 26% 13,095 13,095 ~ ~ ~ DECEMBER 20, 1960 (57TH DAY OF 9:fASoN) SEASON) °Ffn~E~ii.$°6~ (23 LEGAL HUNTING) HUNTING) (23 DAYS LEGAL 47% 21% 21% JANUARY JAl'WAIW 5 1961 DAY AFTER AFTER SEASON/ SEASON) ((12TH 12TH OAY l25 LEGAL HUNTING HUNTING) 25 DAYS LEGAL 12260 12,260 II =6% 11 A.LL ALL PERCENTA8E9 PERCENTAGES RELATE JI RELATE TO 85% 85% SPECIAL SPECIAL INACCESSIBLE INACCESSIBLE ESSSI ESSSl 12% "3% ~ 67% .z20.4 ~ 6SSS.1 11% II% ~ ~ ~ ~ 22% 220/o 28% 28% ~ ~ ~ ~ 50% SO% AREAS AREAS AREA..!! AREAJ/ (HUNTING RESTRICTED) (HUNT ING RESTRICTED) AREAS AAEAS RIYER RIVER ~ 48% 48% ~ SWEITZER SWElT:i".ER LAKE LAI<£ csssg lSSSSI 11% 11% 47% '47o/o = = ~ ~ .~ ~ 11% II% 15% 15% 9% 9% DAYS ~EGAL LEGAL >IUfHINGl HUNTING) ((77 OAYS , TOTAL iOTAL 93% 93% ~ 42% '42% ~ 5% ~ 23% ~ ~ 51% 51% 2% 2% 16% ~ 32% = 24% 24% 1% 1% I Ci:SSSI 10% 10% ~ ~ 60% 60% DUCKS DUCKS Movement of mallard after the 1960 1960 waterfowl seasons. Shooting Shooting restricted restricted on on mallard ducks during and after w.aterfowl seasons. Fig. 5. Movement Gunnison ruvers Rivers as shown shown in Fig. 4. Colorado and GunniSon �From From the standpoint standpoint of good good waterfowl management, ment, it appeared appeared reasonable reasonable and and desirable desirable to explore explore the potential potential for affecting an increased increased harvest harvest of of mallards mallards and improved improved quality of the the hunt hunt through aa system system of of restricted restricted hunting hunting in preferred preferred waterfowl resting resting areas, areas, on on rivers, rivers, which which also a1·e are relatively relatively accessible accessible to hunters, hunters. This need was recognized for for Sweitzer Sweitzer Lake in 1957 1957 when when hunting hunting was restricted restricted to the opening opening day, Saturdays, Saturdays, Sundays Sundays and Wednesdays, during during the open season; season; aa practice practice which which has been followed followed annually since since this this year, year, with with the modification modification of of adding holidays in 1959, 1959. ing the 1960 1960 season. season. Restrictions Restrictions should be most most effective whe,n when applied to sections sections of the Colorado and Gunnison Gunnison Rivers Rivers which are are accessible accessible to hunters hunters and where birds historically prefer birds historically prefer to rest. rest. illl:: The proposal proposal to close accessible accessible sections sections of rivers rivers called called for two two restricted restricted hunting areas areas during the 1960 1960 season; season; one on the Coloradd Coloradd River between the Grand A venue Bridge at Grand -Junction downstream Avenue Grand'-Junction downstream to the the Fruita Fruita Bridge Bridge on on Colorado 340, 340, and and aa second on on the Gunnison Gunnison River River between confluences with with Roubideau. Roubideau and and Escalante Escalante Creeks. Creeks. These two two areas areas comprised comprised about 25 25 miles miles of river. river. This proposal proposal was adopted in the 1960 1960 waterfowl hunting hunting regulations, regulations, with hunting hunting restricted restricted within 100 100 yards yards on either either side of the high water water lines of of these these river river sections, sections, except for the opening day, and and on on each each Wednesday, Wednesday, Saturday, Sunday, Sunday, and legal holiday during the open open season. season. Restricted Restricted hunting hunting zones zones during this season season are shown shown in in Figure Figure 4. Information on on the distribution distribution of ducks ducks during and and Information following following the 1960 1960 season season was obtained from seven aerial aerial surveys. surveys. The same form (Fig. 2) 2) was used used as 1959-60 counts. During both years, years, specific specific during 1959-60 data were tallied tallied on on mallards mallards resting resting on river river secsections where the 1960 1960 special special hunting restriction restriction reguregulations lations were imposed. Results Results of of 1960 1960 counts {Fig. (Fig. 5) 5) show a similar similar pattern pattern of of mallard mallard movement during show this year's year's hunting season season as that demonstrated demonstrated durduring tbe the 1959 1959 season. season. Although Although mid-season mid-season counts ing showed showed that that ducks left left the preferred preferred resting resting areas areas on on rivers during both years, years, some some increase increase in the numnumrivers ber river sections, ber of of ducks ducks on other other accessible accessible river sections, and and on on Sweitzer Sweitzer Lake, were apparent apparent in 1960. 1960. Conclusions Conclusions Hunting pressures pressures exerted exerted by an estimated estimated 1,429 1,429 Hunting 1,525 hunters hunters upon upon wintering wintering mallards mallards in westand 1,525 central central Colorado during the 1959 1959 and and 1960 1960 hunting hunting seasons, seasons, respectively respectively (Grieb and Hunter, 1959 1959 and and 1960), caused birds birds to select select resting resting areas areas along 1960), sections sections of of rivers rivers which are are relatively relatively inaccessible inaccessible hunters. Although Although some some restrictions restrictions of hunting to hunters. were were imposed by by the 1960 1960 regulations regulations on on sections sections of the the Gunnison Gunnison and and Co1orado Colorado rivers rivers normally normally preferred preferred resting areas areas by mallards, mallards, these these did not not appear appear to to as resting protection to to hold holdbirds in these these areas. areas. afford sufficient protection birds in A management management program, program, designed designed to to harvest harvest more more A mallards mallards in the the west-central west- central Colorado Colorado area, area, if such advisable, should should probably probably incorporate incorporate is deemed advisable, more more restrictive restrictive regulations regulations than those imposed imposed dur- Canyon Mallards Mallards Fig. 6. Black Canyon Acknowledgment Acknowledgment Appreciat:ion Appreciation is expressed expressed to Mr. R. W. W. Betts, Betts, former former pilaf: pilot with the Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks DepartDepartwho a.ssisted assisted with ten waterfowl ment, who waterfowl counts during this study; the remaining remaining two flights flights and counts being made made by by the authors. authors. Literature Cited Literature Cited Grieb, Jack Jack R R. and Gilbert Gilbert N. N. Hunter. 1960. 1960. Colorado small hunter harvest small game hunter harvest survey survey - 1959. 1959. Colo. Dept. Dept. of of 1Game, Game, Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Denver. 17 17 p., mimeo. Jack .R. R. and Gilbert Gilbert N. N. Hunter. 1961. 1961. Colorado Colorado Grieb, Jack small small garne game hunter hunter harvest harveSt survey survey - 1960. 1960. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. 17 17 p., mimeo. mimeo. Wayne W. Wayne W. Sandfort Game Research Research Chief and Dwight E. Owens Owens Dwight Conservation Officer Wildlife Conservation June, 1967 1967 �Facts Outdoor Fact '".. PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUBLISHED COLORADO GAME GAME, COLORADO PARKS DEPT. DEPT. FISH and PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 54 Number 54 DETERMINATION OF AGE AGE AND AND SEX SEX OF OF THE THE DETERMINATION OF SOUTHERN WHITE-TAILED 1/ SOUTHERN WHITE -TAILED PTARMIGAN PTARMIGAN 1/ Preliminary studies studies on the southern white-tailed Preliminary southern white-tailed ptarmigan leucurus altipetens) altipetens) were were initiptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus initi1958 and greatly greatly expanded in 1966. 1966. Since ated in 1958 1958, data on on age and sex have been acquired 1958, acquired by 143 were were handling over 417 417 ptarmigan, ptarmigan, of which 143 hunter-killed, 256 256 were were trapped trapped and banded, and and 18 18 hunter-killed, were special studies. studies. were taken for special Measurements of of rectrix rectrix length and wing length as Measurements described by Bergerud Bergerud et al. (1963) on all described (1963) were were taken on birds 1966. In years years prior 1966, total total birds handled in 1966. prior to 1966, wing length, central central rectrix rectrix length, length of of middle wing outer eight primaries primaries were were toe, and length of the outer taken on on all birds birds handled. In addition, weight, length of eye comb (caruncle), (caruncle), length of ofthe central and width of the central upper-tail covert, covert, and information information on the color and upper-tail development of plumage were were obtained for most birds. birds. throughinto adult and juvenile juvenile (subadult) age classes classes throughyear. This separation separation is based on the fact that that out the year. based on of the first first white primaries primaries (outer two) two) that molt into of a wing of of a chick, either either one or both have black black pigfrom the rachis rachis into the vane of of the ment extending from primary (Fig. 1). 1). Thus, if black pigment is present primary black pigment present in either the ninth or tenth (outer two) two) primaries, primaries, the either bird is a juvenile, noblack bird juvenile, while if no black pigment is present present in primaries ten, the bird bird is an adult (Fig. 2). 2). primaries nine or ten, Pigmentation absent from either Pigmentation may be absent either primaries primaries nine or ten, but only very very rarely rarely in both outer outer priprimaries in juvenile birds. characteristic maries birds. Another characteristic useful in separating separating between age which appears appears to be useful classes is the presence presence or absence of black pigmenpigmenclasses tation (outer) primary tation in the first first {outer) primary covert. covert. If pigment present, the bird classed as a juvenile, is present, bird is classed juvenile, and if absent, an adult. absent, AGE DETERMINATION DETERMINATION AGE SEX DETERMINATION SEX DETERMINATION White-tailed ptarmigan can be easily easily separated separated Whitetailed ptarmigan summer plumage is In white-tailed white-tailed ptarmigan, ptarmigan, full summer attained by the first of June, being slightly slightly delayed in attained first of Fig. 1. Wing of a ptarmigan illustrating primary Wing of ptarmigan chick illustrating primary replacement. . replacement Wings of juvenile ptarmigan Fig. 2. Wings juvenile (upper) and adult ptarmigan (lower).. (lower) YContribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project W-37-RR .!/Contribution Project W-37- �juvenile birds. birds. Plumage Plumage in both males and and females females is is darker darker or more strongly strongly marked marked in June and July July than it is in August August and and September. In early early summer, summer, the plumage on on the back and and sides sides of of the females females is is aa mixture mixture of of black, brown, and and yellow, while that of of the male is predominantly predominantly brown and black (Figs. (Figs. 33 and 4). By By August, differences differences in in plumage coloration coloration on on the back and and sides sides have modmoderated erated and and remain remain most noticeable noticeable at the nape, on on the sides, tail sides, and and inner inner wing wing (Fig. 5) 5) and and on the upperupper-tail coverts coverts (Figs. (Figs. 66 and 7). 7). Males also also retain retain pure white lower breast, breast, abdomen, and under-tail under-tail coverts coverts throughout the year, year, while females females in the spring spring molt all of of their their white lower brea:st, more breast, abdomen, and under-tail under-tail coverts coverts to more subdued yellow-buffy brown feathers feathers with mediummedium- wide wide black. black barrings barrings (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 10, and 11). 11). Hens that attemjpt attempt to nest nest can also also be recognized recognized by the presence presence oJ[ of a brood patch. At the present present time, time, no good good field technique is available to to sex sex white-tailed white-tailed ptarmigan ptarmigan when they are are in in winter winter plumage. Possibly Possibly no field technique will be found, found, but present present indications indications are are that that a technique will will be available available to sex birds birds in the winter winter if they can be handled. This technique will be based based on certain certain measuremEmts measurements such as wing length, length of the first first (outer) primaries, and outer (outer) fiv€, five primaries, outer rectrix rectrix length. '. --~- ,"',J 1.l Fig. 3. 3. Female Female ptarmigan ptarmigan in midsummer midsummer plumage. Fig. 5. 5. Wings Wings of adult ptarmigan ptarmigan in late late August (male Fig. on left and and female female on right). right). Fig. 4. 4. Male ptarmigan ptarmigan in midsummer midsummer plumage. Fig. 6. ptarmigan 6. Dorsal Dorsal view of the tail tail of a female female ptarmigan in August. �Fig. 7. 7. Dorsal Dorsal view view of of the tail tail of of aa male ptarmigan ptarmigan in August. August. Fig. 10. ptarmigan. 10. Venltral Ventral view of tail tail of a male male ptarmigan. Fig. 8. 8. Breast Breast feather feather coloration coloration of of aa male ptarmigan. ptarmigan. Fig. 11. 11. Ventral Ventral view of tail tail of a female female ptarmigan. ptarmigan. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Bergerud, A. A. T., S.S. S. S. Peters, 1963. Bergerud, Peters, and R. McGrath. 1963. Determining Determining sex sex and age of willow ptarmigan ptarmigan in Newfoundland. Newfoundland. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 27(4): 27(4): 700-711. Clait E. Braun Braun Student Assistant Assistant and Rogers Glenn E. Rogers Assistant Wildlife Researcher Assistant Researcher Fig. 9. 9. Breast Breast feather feather coloration coloration of of aa female female ptarmiptarmigan. Note Note brood patch. May, May, 1967 1967 �Outdoor Facts do 0 PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLOR COLORADO PUBLISHED DO ATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENTTo OF NATURAL RESOURCES OEPARTME DIVISIO OF GAME, ISH AND AND PARKS DIVISION OF GAME, FISH PARKS Number 55 Number 55 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet VISUAL SEX SEX DETERMI DETERMINATION VISUAL ATIO OF MOUNTAI MOUNTAIN OF GOATS GOATS AS RELATED RELATED TO SELECTIVE SELECTIVE HUNTING POTENTIAL ~/ AS TO HUNT! G POTENTIAL !/ Rocky Mountain Goat (Oreamnos americanus) americanus) The Rocky successfully established established in Colorado through has been successfully transplant stock stock obtained from Idaho SouthDakota. transplant Idaho and South Dakota. The Collegiate Collegiate Range in Lake and Chaffee Counties and Mount Mount Evans in Clear Clear Creek Creek CoW1ty County now now have and productive populations of of goats large large enough enough to allow productive selective cropping of surplus surplus animals. animals. Beginning in selective 1964, hunting seasons seasons have been held in selected selected 1964, areas of the Collegiate Collegiate Range, and in 1967 1967 a season season areas first time Mount Evans. will .aalso lso be held for the first time on Mount There are are surplus surplus male goats in both the ColleThere Mount Evans herds. giate Range and Mount herds. Since mountain are a polygamous .species, species, selective selective cropping goats are of surplus males in small small populations can be of surplus adult males accomplished in areas areas where -there are both males accomplished there are and females females without exploiting exploiting the goat populations. previous This has, in fact, been the basis basis for the previous three hunting seasons seasons held in the Collegiate Collegiate Range. Range. three A problem problem in distinguishing distinguishing between male and female A goats has become apparent, apparent, as both sexes are idensexes are tical in appearance appearance except for a few few minor minor characcharactical teristics. purpose of this present teristics. The purpose this leaflet leaflet is to present some information which will enable the unskilled some information unskilled observer to make an accurate accurate determination determination of the observer sex of a mountain goat under field conditions. There are three three positive positive ways of determining determining There are whether particular goat is male or female: whether or not a particular (1) Observation Observation of the external external genitalia; (2) NannyNanny(1) genitalia; (2) kid association· association; and {3) (3) The urinating position. In urinating position. 1, the scrotum on the adult Fig. 1, scrotum is plainly visible visible on when the goat season season is male goat. During August, when held, goat's goat's hair hair has not yet grown grown to the length obscure the external external genitalia. where it will obscure genitalia. Mountain mother goat until they are are goat kids stay with the mother year old (Fig. 2). 2). Any over one year Any adult goat followed by l/Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-41-R. _!/Contribution almost sure female. If the oba kid is almost sure to be an adult female. server has time period of server time to watch the goats for a period time, accurate cricritime, the urinating urinating position is also an accurate terion for determining determining sex. After rising rising from an terion period, goats generally generally will urinate urinate extended bedding period, short time. female generally generally assumes assumes a within a short time. The female squatting posture posture similar similar to that taken by a female female squatting (Fig. 3), whereas the males stretch the dog {Fig. 3), whereas males simply simply stretch body slight downward arching arching of the back. This body with a slight sexing technique is applicable applicable to kids as well as sexiJ)g to adults. adults. Other less less accurate accurate ways of determining determining the sex are: (1) (1) Basal Basal Circumference circumference and of mountain goats are: curvature of horns; and (2) animals curvature of the horns; (2) Lone adult animals males away from from the nanny-kid nanny-kid herd. The horns horns of males are more massive massive through their their entire entire length than are of the female, female, and curve gently backward those of backward from the skull to the tip of the horn. Horns of the female female slender immediately immediately beyond the base, become slender base, and show their their greatest curvature a few from the show greatest curvature few inches inches from (Figs. 4 and 5) 5).. The observer observer mustbe must be experienced experienced tip {Figs. only this criterion is used to determine if only this criterion determine sex. Adult males, years and older, older, normally normally are males, two two years are found found alone or in small small groups of two two to five individuals. individuals. Although not always true, true, adult animals though animals alone and away from the nanny-kid-yearling nanny-kid-yearling herd are generally generally herd are away males. adult males. these criteria, By using a combination of these criteria, a Rocky Rocky Mountain Goat hunter should be abl_e abl.€ to accurately Goat hunter accurately determine the sex select the male animal determine sex of goats and select during his hunt. during L. Dale Hibbs Assistant Researcher Assistant Wildlife Researcher 1967 May, 1967 �r Fig. 11 Adult Adult male goat with scrotum scrotum easily easily discerndiscernduring late summer. summer. ible during Fig. 22 Nannykid- yearling group, sshowing howing nanny, Nanny-kid-yearling nanny, her four-month-old and 16l6-month-old yearling. Note Note fourmonth-old kid, and month-old yearling. size size variation. variation. fl Fig. 33 Five female female goats, including one one female female kid, in typical typical female urinating urinating position. Fig. 44 Female Female and male Rocky Rocky Mountain goat horns. horns. Horns of the male (on (on the right) are are more more massive massive through their their entire entire length than those of of the female (left). Fig. 5 Sex Sex differentiation differentiation in Rocky Rocky Mountaip Mountaip. goat horns. horns. Note Note that that the horns of of the female (left) (left) show show their their greatest greatest curvature curvature aa few few inches inches from from the tip. �Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO 0 GAME, rdf' , FISH and PARKS I' DEPT. Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet Number 56 Number 56 THE PHEASA PHEASANT TCROWI CROWING GCOU COUNTTCE CENSUS THE SUS AND A D FACTORS AFFECTI AFFECTING G ITS ITS RELIABILITY RELIABILITY.lJ 1J FACTORS Game managers managers are are fortunate fortunate that the rooster rooster Game pheasant feels feels compelled compelled each spring spring to loudly loudlyadverpheasant advertise his irresistable irresistable presence ladies of the tise presence to the ladies species. His two-syllable two-syllable crowing may appear appear to species. lack sex appeal but it forms forms the basis basis for the lack accurate and practical most accurate practical pheasant pheasant survey survey tool available today, available of the pheasant pheasant crowing count to derive derive The use of reported in 1949 1949 by J. W. aa population index was reported W. Kimball. Three Three years years later later Colorado Colorado biologists, biologists, Kimball. noting some some variance variance in their compared with their findings compared Kimball's, instigated Kimball's, instigated a study designed designed to modify the the technique for eventual eventual use in a Statewide census census system. This discussion discussion of the effect effect of various various facsystem. factors on pheasant pheasant crowing is based based on Colorado investors tigations concluded by Swope Swope and Grieb (1953) tigations (1953) and Boeker (1954). (1954). Boeker Seasonal Crowing Intensity. Intensity. - Consistent Consistent crowing Seasonal activity normally normally begins near the end of March March and activity begins near terminates in July. July. Call intensity intensity tends tends to reach reach a terminates plateau near near mid-April, remains fairly constant plateau mid-April, and remains fairly constant until mid-June. mid-June. This explains explains the procedure recom-until procedure recom Colorado's inventory inventory program program that all mended in Colorado's 11Contribution from Federal Aid Project Project W-37-R. contribution fr om Federal W- 37- R. crowing counts should be made between between April 20 20 10 (Fig. 1). and June 10 Persistent crowing usuusuDaily Crowing Activity. - Persistent starts one hour prior prior to sunrise, sunrise, reaches reaches a peak ally starts 10 to 20 minutes later, gradually tapers tapers off. off. 10 20 minutes later, then gradually greatest calling calling intensity appears to be The hour of greatest intensity appears from 50 50 minutes minutes before sunrise to 10 10 minutes minutes past. from before sunrise past. calls heard heard after after sunset sunset may be partially Decline in calls partially attributed to increased increased listening listening interference, attributed interference, as other living creatures creatures become become active active (Fig. 2). other ratio of of hens to cocks very very defiSex Ratio. - The ratio affects crowing intensity. rooster nitely affects intensity. Individual rooster observations made in Colorado (Swope, (Swope, 1964) 1964) showed observations correlation between the crowing interval interval and direct correlation a direct of hens with the calling These data data the number of calling cock. These are tabulated tabulated on on the next page. a.re �No. of hens with No. calling rooster rooster calling obserNo. of observations made Time interval interval between calls between calls 77 34 45 27 27 2:05 3:33 3:33 4:11 5:33 0o 11 2 More than 2 appear significant This phenomenon does not appear significant when spring sex ratios constant from one year year to spring sex ratios remain remain constant normally do. If aa drastic drastic change the next, as they normally does occur occur in the sex sex ratio; ratio; however, this this factor factor must compensation~ made, made. be evaluated evaluated and compensation~ >OD 100 1 •o 90 -1 I \ II OPTIMUM S!ASONAL SEASONAL C(lU..-Tlt~ COUNT IN:; OPilM~ PERIOD PElUOD •• dure used Colorado, which takes dure used in Colorado, takes only the high number of of calls calls on each station station from from every number every count low values values that that may have made, tends to eliminate eliminate low resulted from from listening listening interference. interference. The crescendo crescendo resulted interference following sunrise makes it it of listening listening interference sunrise makes imperative that counts be completed completed soon thereafter. thereafter. imperative In certain certain of Colorado's Colorado's dryland dryland pheasant pheasant ranges ranges deep-well irrigation becoming a common practice. practice. deep-well irrigation is becoming When spring rainfall rainfall is deficient deficient the irrigation When spring irrigation pumps are These pumps can be are frequently frequently run all night. These heard from six to eight miles heard from six miles away on a calm mornmorning and may play havoc with a carefully carefully plotted plotted least one occasion occasion it has been crowing route. route. On On at least necessary to change the course course of an established necessary established route on mornings mornings when the pumps are are in action. route action. irrigation may someday someday A growing use of pump irrigation use of the crowing count impractical impractical in make the use affected areas areas. . affected 80 ~o Q Weather Factors. Factors. - The influence weather on Weather influence of weather intensity is not fully understood; understood; however, crowing intensity information is available this regard. some information available in this regard . f~ 7700 !~ •• :;;,: 60 ~ .. so ~ so 5 ~ Wind may mayor Wind or may not affect crowing, but at velocvelocities exceeding exceeding four miles miles per ities per hour it certainly certainly rerestricts the reception observer. Counts stricts reception of calls calls by the observer. velocities exce.ed exceed four should not be made when wind velocities miles per per hour. miles 40 40 . ~ I ~· 30 30 ~ 20 10 LO ,o !10 ~ APRIL APilL 10 lO MAY 1'.AY 20 10 to 20 ZO 20 20 10 l0 JUNE .rum; 20 lO JULY JUL\'. Fig. 1. 1. Seasonal pheasant crowing crowing activity Seasonal influence on pheasant activity Colorado. in eastern eastern Colorado. I OPTIMUM 100 "' MD.'! cw.-rnc COlNtTWC MU.~ PERIOD '''""" Precipitation Precipitation during during the crowing count has been found to substantially substantially decrease found decrease the number number of calls calls heard observer. Often a count made following heard by the observer. rain is a good good one; however, additional additional inforinfora light rain predict the influence of humidity mation is needed to predict pheasant crowing. on pheasant eo '0 fi Temperatures below seasonal seasonal norms norms appear appear to Temperatures exert a negative influence on on crowing activity prior exert activity -prior call intensity. role of temperature to the peak of call intensity. The role temperature completely known, known, but-its effects on crowing crowing·. is not completely but its effects apparently decline as call increases in the call intensity intensity increases apparently decline spring. The warmer warmer mornings mornings should be selected spring. selected in this early early spring spring period period for optimum counts. Cloud cover cover appears appears to affect primarily the time time affect primarily Cloud reached. On On overcast overcast mornings mornings the crowing peak is reached. crowing is delayed and prolonged. prolonged. When such conditions are are encountered encountered the count should be started ditions started slightly later in the morning morning.. slightly later )0 20 . 10 Typical daily pheasant pheasant crowing crowing activity,eastern activity, eastern Fig. 2. Typical Colorado. Colorado. A rising rising or steady steady barometer during the 24 hour barometer during period prior prior to the count often results results in more more calls. period calls. Conversely, dropping dropping barometric Conversely, barometric pressure pressure usually usually results in fewer calls. results fewer calls. Listening Interference. Interference. - The influence of an alalListening most unbelievable unbelievable variety that result result in variety of of sounds, that less listening conditions, conditions, is difficult less than perfect perfect listening difficult to evaluate. Errors Errors precipitated precipitated by these these sounds do evaluate. appear to be compensating. compensating. Humming wires, wires, the roar appear roar of distant distant vehicles, vehicles, singing birds, birds, bawling bawling cattle, cattle, etc., usually usually present present comparable comparable problems etc., problems in the same census area area each year. year. The tabulation tabulation proceprocesame census Variable listening listening ability of observers. observers. - Audio Variable Audio perception varies varies with individuals individuals and would seem to perception would seem seriously threaten accuracy of a census seriously threaten the accuracy census method dependant upon sound. It has been frequently frequently demonstrated, however, that that persons persons without hearing hearing imimstrated, pediments, independent counts in the same same pediments, making independent area, achieve similar similar results. results. Crowing count accuarea, accu- 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 tIME OF DAY (111Nl11'ES) 0 10 20 )0 40 50 60 70 80 90 �racy racy takes takes practice practice and and intense intense concentration. concentration. BeBeginners ginners applying this this technique are are likely likely to vary considerably considerably in the number of calls calls recorded. recorded. It is certainly certainly desirable, desirable, from from the standpoint standpoint of of accuracy, accuracy, to have one one observer observer conduct this census census on on a spespecific cific route route from from one year year to the next. One One big advantage advantage of the pheasant pheasant crowing crowing count technique is is the elimination elimination of the visual visual error error where dense dense vegetation vegetation results results in in more more birds, birds, but makes them harder harder to see. see. Admittedly it is aa test test of courage courage to grope one's one's way way out out of of bed at 3:00 A.M. A.M. to listen listen to the squawking antics antics of aa cantankerous cantankerous bird. bird. HowHowever, manever,if~if these these surveys surveys are are made in aa consistent consistent manner, ner, under under comparable comparable conditions, conditions, the useful population data data obtained will be ample reward. reward. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED Boeker, Boeker, H. H. M. M. 1954. Evaluation Evaluation and statistical statistical analanalysis ysis of of the pheasant pheasant crowing crowing count census census method. method. Colo. Colo. Game and Fish Fish Dept., Fed. Aid Div., Quart. Prog. Prog. Rept., Rept., July:41-48. July:41-48. Kimball, J. W. W. 1949, 1949. The crowing count pheasant pheasant census. census. JJ.. Wildl. Manage. 13(1):101-120. Swope, Swope, H. H. M. M.,1, and J. J. R. Grieb. Grieb. 1953. Evaluation Evaluation and statistical statistical analysis analysis of the pheasant pheasant crowing crowing count census census method. Colo. Game and Fish Fish Dept., Fed. Aid Aid Div., <;tuart. Quart. Frog. Prog. Rept. Rept.,, January:87-96. January:87-96. Swope, Swope, H. H. M. M. 1964. Pheasant Pheasant population population studies. studies. Colo. Game, Fislh Fed. Aid Div., Game Fish and Parks Parks Dept., Fed. Res. Rept. Rept.,, April, April, Part Part 2:87-93. Harold Harold M M.. Swope Swope Wildlife Researcher Researcher January, January, 1967 1967 �Facts Outdoor Facts d PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE , . I" \" .: I· COLORADO GAME,, FISH and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO GAME Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 57 Number 57 DEER TRAPPING AND TAGGING RESULTS DEER TRAP PI G AND TAGGING RESULTS AT THE THE LITTLE EXPERIMENT T STATIO STATION AT LITTLE HILLS HILLS EXPERIME Mule deer deer were trapped and earear-tagged were trapped tagged at the Little Hills Experiment Experiment Station from from 1948 1948 to 1966 1966 to Little Hills determine the extent extent of migration migration between determine between summer summer winter ranges ranges of of the White River River deer deer herd. herd. Sig.ht Sight and winter records hunter recoveries recoveries of marked marked deer deer have records and hunter been analyzed analyzed to identify areas areas where where hunting prespressure could be used most most advantageously sure advantageously to regulate regulate deer numbers numbers on the Piceance Piceance Creek Creek winter deer winter range. range. lJ way enclosed enclosed by an eight-foot eight-foot woven wire fence with woven wire manually operated operated gates gates at each end. Another Another type manually small fenced hayfield hayfield with manual manual dropdrop-gates gates was a small located intervals along the fence. Group traps traps were were located at intervals effective during dry years years when deer deer made effective in late late fall during movements into bottomland areas for for water water nightly movements bottomland areas and green green feed. METHODSAND EQUIPMENT AND EQUIPMENT METHODS Deer were were caught in two basic trap types: types: individDeer basic trap ual and group. Individual wooden wooden box traps, traps, modified versions of the Stephenson Stephenson deer deer trap trap {Gilbert, (Gilbert, 1952), 1952), versions were throughout the program (Fig. 1). 1). These These were used throughout program {Fig. proved proved effective effective during during severe severe winters winters when snow covered the natural natural food supply. Deer, Deer, at such times, times, covered readily to the alfalfa alfalfa bait traps. came readily bait in the traps. types of group traps operated in Fig. 2. Two types traps were were operated late fall Lettered arrows arrows point to late fall before before snow fell. fell. Lettered (A) trap built deer traveltravel-way (A) trap built around a deer way (outlined in black), (B) gates gates at each end, (C) (C) trap trap built built around around a black), {B) hayfield, (D) (D) drop-gates, drop-gates, (E) (E) central central drop-gate re-drop-gate re hayfield, lease, (F) lane leading leading to chutes, chutes, and (G) (G) holding and lease, tagging chutes. chutes. tagging Fig. 1. Box traps traps were were effective effective during during winters winters when considerable snow cover cover was present. present. considerable traps were later development development {Fig. (Fig. 2). One Group traps were a later kind consisted consisted of a portion natural deer travelportion of a natural deer travel11Contribution from Federal Project W-101-R. contribution from Federal Aid Project W- 101- R. Little Hills Hills Experiment The Little Experiment Station is located located about miles southwest southwest of Meeker, Meeker, Rio Blanco County, 30 miles Colorado. Colorado. equipment used used to tag and mark deer is shown mark deer The equipment Figure 3. Steel cow tags tags and aluminum, aluminum, rivetrivet-type in Figure type button tags tags were types used. used. They were were were the first first types normally applied applied in combination, combination, one in each ear. ear. normally Later, round aluminum cow cow tags tags were excluLater, were used exclusively (Fig. 4). These These were variously colored, colored, mostly mostly sively were variously yellow, with large, large, easily easily discernible discernible numbers. numbers. Ear markers markers were Ear were attached attached with the tags tags to enable procurement of sight records, especially during the procurement sight records, especially during summer. At first, first, small small plastic markers, in various various summer. plastic markers, color combinations, were attached attached with the shape and color combinations, were �tags. These These were were not durable durable and were were difficult difficult button tags. great distance. distance. Best results were obto see at any great Best results colored plastic streamers used used from tained with the colored plastic streamers from 1960 to the end of of the study. 1960 \· j A A 'J ·l:IOt~OOCCllM;I:!l'oU'LC c C 4.",",_~lX'._ --~_.............,wr,",_. 0o Fig. 5. 5. Distribution Distribution of of recoveries, recoveries, 1950-66, and sightsightof deer deer tagged and marked marked at the ings, 1961-66, of Little Hills Experiment Experiment Station. Little G mark deer. deer. (A) (A) clipclipFig. 3. Equipment used to tag and mark on steel steel cow pliers for cow tags, (C) (C) twoon cow tag, (B) (B) pliers cow tags, piece, rivet-type, rivet-type, aluminum button tag, (D) piece, (D) button tag plastic marker, marker, (E) ear punch and pliers with plastic (E) and (F) ear pliers for button tags, cow tag with tags, (G) (G) round aluminum cow streamer, and (H) (H) pliers pliers with cow streamer, cow tag ready for attachment. attachment, One hundred nineteen nineteen tags (55 reOne (55 percent) percent) were were recovered from deer killed or found found dead within 10 10 covered deer killed miles of of Little Little Hills Station (Fig. 6). These miles These included resident deer early migrants. migrants. Since the two both resident deer and early were were all considered considered as "local" "local" were inseparable, inseparable, they were purposes of this this study. Of Of the remaining remaining 98 98 rerefor purposes coveries, 76 (35 (35 percent) percent) were from deer killed killed or coveries, 76 from deer found east, 16 16 (7 (7 percent) percent) to the south, 5 found dead to the east, (2 percent) percent) to the west, and 1 (less (less than 1 percent) percent) to (2 Experiment Station. the north of the Little Little Hills Experiment N N 0.5 0 .5 % (I) (I) 23.5 % 23.5 (51) (5ll % w 2.3 w (5) (5) NORTH FORK WHITE RIVER j 9.7% 9.7% / // MILE ----/ - " 110 0 MILE-RADIUS FROM RADIUS LITTLE HILLS LITTLE HILLS / / RESULTS RESULTS In all, 1,721 1,721 deer deer were were trapped trapped and ear-tagged ear-tagged durdur18-year study period. period. These These included included 258 258 adult ing the 18-year bucks, 666 666 adult does, bucks, does, 420 buck fawns, 374 doe fawns, unclassified as to age, or sex, or both. At least least and 3 unclassified 197 deer deer were were either either given to various agencies for 197 various agencies research purposes, purposes, used research at Little Little Hills, Hills, research used for research winter in which they were were trapped. trapped. or died the same same winter Consequently, are based based on on 1,524 deer. deer. Consequently, calculations calculations are were returned returned from 14.2 percent, Tags were from 217, or 14.2 percent, of of total deer deer tagged (Fig. 5). kills accounted for the total 5). Hunter kills 203 these, and winter losses and road kills 14. 203 of of these, winter losses kills for 14. ~ >~ a: ~ ~o 0..... ~ 0 to ~ -' ... EE w ~ J: S: "'zz 3= 0 c 0c >w (21) (21) CD a, 7.4% 7.4% (16)l (16 s deer and attach tags and Fig. 4. Method used to hold deer attach tags streamers. streamers. a: rr w tt . 203 HUNTER RETURNS: RETURNS = 203 OTHER RETURNS : 14 Fig. 6. 6. Summary Summary of deer deer tag returns direction returns by direction from Little Little Hills Experiment Experiment Station, Station, 1950 1950 through through from 1966. (Number of returns returns are are in parentheses). 1966. parentheses). The mean distance distance between tagging and recovery recovery sites was 14.1 14.1 ("! ("!: 1.1 1.1 standard error) air air miles. miles. The sites standard error) varied from 0 to 92 92 miles, latter being for range varied from O miles, the latter a deer Creek near near the town of of deer killed killed at Sheephorn Creek Radium in Grand County. County. Streamers were were attached attached to the ears ears of 591 591 deer. deer. Streamers Forty-three (7.3 percent) of of these these were seen 10 10 Forty-three (7.3 percent) were later later seen or more more miles miles from from Little Little Hills. Hills. No records records were were 10 miles miles of the Stakept of of marked marked deer deer seen within 10 considered residents residents and such tion as these these were considered sightings were Common. sighting percentage sightings common. The sighting percentage for deer seems seems low, but the comparable ribboned deer comparable figure figure returns originating originating 10 10 or more more miles for tag returns miles from from Little Hills was only 6.4 percent. Little percent. �ribboned deer deer (40 (40 percent) percent) were were reported Only 17 ribboned reported during during the summer summer months (June through through September). September). Most remaining remaining observations observations occurred occurred during during the season. Marked Marked deer deer sightings sightings by direction direction hunting season. from Little Little llills lIills are are summarized summarized in Figure Figure 7. All frorn but two deer deer (95 (95 percent) percent) were were seen seen east east of the Station. The two exceptions exceptions were were deer deer seen south tiop, seen to the south summer. The farthest farthest sighting sighting was at Trappers Trappers in summer. air miles miles east east of Little Little Hills. Lake, about 50 air Hills. N N o_o 0.0 ¾ % 58.1 58.1 % (25) (25) t NORTH FORK W 0.0 0.0 % % W WHITE RIVER E i + 37.2 % 37.2 ,/ / (16)) (16 / // MILE ----/ 110 0 MILE ---" RADIUS FROM FROM RADIUS 4.7% 4.7¾ LITTLE HILLS U TTLE HIU.S (2) (2) s TOTAL RETURNS a~ 43 43 RETURNS Fig. 7. Summary Summary of marked deer sightings direcFig. marked deer sightings by direcfrom Little Little Hills Station, 1961 1961through tion from Hills Experiment Experiment Station, through 1966. (Number of sightings are in parentheses.) parentheses.) 1966. sightings are DISCUSSION DISCUSSION tag recovery recovery information information was obtained obtained from from Most tag three main sources: sources: (1) (1) voluntary voluntary reports hunters, three main reports by hunters, (2) field field contacts contacts by Department Department personnel, personnel, and (3) (3) (2) hunter check stations. stations. The possibility tag being hunter check possibility of a tag reported immediate Little Little Hills Hills area area was inreported in the immediate creased because because information, information, water, water, etc., were availavailcreased etc., were Station headquarteTS headquarters and, also, also, able to hunters hunters at the Station Station personnel personnel made frequent frequent field field checks. checks. The Station local recovery recovery percentage local percentage (54.8), therefore, therefore, not only reflects the resident resident deer deer population population and early mireflects early migrants, but also also these these other other factors. factors. grants, records were also subject errors. Nearly Sight records were also subject to errors. Nearly observations occurring occurring 10 or more more miles miles from from all observations Little Hills Hills were were made Forest Little made by Department Department and Forest Service local ranchers, Service personnel, personnel, local ranchers, and hunters. hunters. These These are more more numerous spend most most of their their people are numerous and spend time at the higher higher elevations elevations east east of Little Little Hills. Hills. Contime sequently, sight sight records records will tend to reflect reflect this this as sequently, well as normal normal deer deer movements. movements. A comparison was made to determine determine .if if tag tag re re-A comparison covery locations locations were distributed in relation relation to huntcovery were distributed proportions of the number number of tags tags pressure. The proportions ing pressure. returned to the total total estimated estimated hunters per unit from from returned hunters per 1959 through through 1965 1965 were compared for for Game ManageManage1959 were compared 24 (Table 1). About 70 70 perperment Units 11, 12, 23, and 24 total tags received, exclusive 22 cent of the total tags received, exclusive of Unit 22 (Piceance), came from these units during during this seven(Piceance), came from these units this sevenyear Proportions between differed sigsigyear period. period. Proportions between units units differed nificantlyatat the 90 percent percent confidence confidence level level, indicating nificantly indicating that tags tags were were not recovered recovered in di. direct proportion to that r ect proportion hunter density. density. hunter CONCLUSION CONCLUSIO Results of both tag tag and sight sight returns returns indicate Results indicate that that the major major mule deer deer migration migration from Little Hills Hills from the Little wintering general easterly easterly direction, direction, -pripriwintering area area is in a general marily into Units 12, 23, and 24. Most southward southward and marily westward movements movements are 22 and westward are confined to Unit 22 northerly movements are limited. Therefore, Therefore, hunting northerly mqvements are limited. regulations formulated formulated for Game Management regulations Management Units 12, 22, 23, 24 24, and to a lesser lesser extent extent Unit 11, would 12, influential in managing deer herd that be most most influential managing the deer herd that winters on the Little Little Hills Hills Experiment Station area, area, winters Experiment Station specifically, lower Piceance Piceance Creek Creek portion specifically, and on the lower portion generally. of Unit 22, generally. Table L Comparison Comparison of the proportions proportions of the numb9r number of deer deer tags returned to the estimated hunters hunters per Table 1. tags returned the total total estimated per Game Management Management Unit from 1959 through through 1965. 1965. from 1959 11 11 (Strawberry C:t.) Cr.) (Strawberry Total hunters-11 hunters1J Total Total tag tag retu. returns Total r ns Returns/hunter Returns/hunter (x10,000) (xl0,000) 19,769 11 11 5.6 Management Unit Game Management 12 23 (Williams Fork) Fork) (Miller Cr.) Cr.) (Williams (Miller 8,381 8,381 13 15.5 23,460 19 8.1 24 (White (White R.) 8,809 11 11 12.5 ~igures taken from from annual big game season Silason resumes resumes prepared prepared by the Game Management Management Division, Division, Colorado ~igures taken Colorado Department of Game, Fish, Department Fish, and Parks. Parks. LITERATURE CITED Gilbert, P. F. 1952. Deer Deer trapping and tagging in ColoGilbert, trapping andtagginginColorado, p. 52-64. In Quarterly Quarterly Progress Report, July July, rado, Progress Report, & Fish Dept.,, Denver, Denver, 171 171 p. Colo. Game & Fish Dept. Richard M. Bartmann Richard Bartmann Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate Wildlife Candidate July, 1967 1967 July, �t_ Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED BY THE USU H OB COLORADO GAME, FISH d PARKS 0 ORA O f:iA SH and DEPT. Number umb r 58 Game Information Information Leaflet t Game Leaf! CANADA D CA GOOSE POP POPULATIONS GOOSE LATIO geese are are the most manageable manageable of of all waCanada geese terfowl species because regular habits. habits. Not terfowl species because they have regular ot only of birds birds retain retain their on ly do individual populations of their identity, migrate together together at regular regular times times identity but they migrate year. Furthermore, follow the saroemigrasame migraeach year. Furthermore, they follow routes, and they nest and winter tion routes, winter in the same areas. This permits managers to keep dose close track track of areas. permits managers their numbers. status can be their numbers . Changes in population status readily observed relating to longreadily observed and decisions decisions made relating term objectives objectives - whether whether numbers term numbers should be increased, decreased decreased or maintained maintained at present levels. creased present levels. For reason Canada goose management has For this this reason reached a high level level of of efficiency. efficiency. As a result, result, popureached lations are are generally generally at a high level, level, and tend to proprolations benefits to sportsmen sportsmen of of duce maximum recreation recreation benefits entire Central Colorado and the entire Central Flyway. There are are three three historical historical populations populations of Canada There more seasons seasons geese which inhabit Colorado at one or more of the year. year. These These are Grass Prairie Prairie Popuof are the Short Grass lation, High-line Basin lation, High- line Population, and the Great Great Basin Population. In addition, restoration restoration efforts efforts have rerePopulation. sulted successful establishment establishment of of resident resident flocks sulted in successful various parts parts of of the state. state. A brief brief description description of into various of these these groups of of birds birds will be given. each of Population. - This population Short Grass Grass Prairie Prairie Population. of small small Canada geese occurs occurs in southeast southeast Colorado of where wintering birds on such areas areas as T\vo Two Buttes where wintering birds on Buttes Reservoir, Eads Lakes, Lakes, John Martin Martin Reservoir, Reservoir, Reservoir, Meredith Reservoir Reservoir and and Blue Lake can number as Meredith 50,000 for all areas. areas. This population usually high as 50,000 usually occurs early early in the winter, winter, after after the first first of occurs of December. After After this this time time, cold weather weather and hunting presber. pressure combine to drive drive many of of these these geese geese south sure near to Buffalo Lake National Wildlife Refuge Refuge near Amarillo, Texas. Texas. Amarillo, There are three general sizes sizes of of geese this There are three general geese in this population. Most common is the lesser lesser Canada goose population. (Branta canadensis canadensis parvipes). species makes up (Branta parvipes). This species 90 percent birds wintering Arkansas over 90 percent of all birds wintering in the Arkansas characterized by small small feet and Valley. They aare re characterized short bills and 7 pounds. short bills and weigh between 5 1/2 1/ 2 and 11Contribution Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-88-R. Contribution from Federal W- 88- R. OF COLORADOlJ S OF OLOR DO_y smaller, The second most common goose is even smaller, weighing 3 1/ 1/22 to 4 pounds and known known as the RichardRichardson's Goose Goose (Branta (Branta canadensis canadensis hutchinsii). larger son's hutchinsii). No No larger mallard, this this white-cheeked white-cheeked bird bird has than a mallard, nas all the marking characteristics of its larger marking and characteristics larger brothers. brothers. these birds are very small, their their bill short Feet of these birds are very small, bill is short their call is high-pitched. and stubby, and their high-pitched. This subspecies makes up five to seven percent percent of of the Short species Grass Prairie Prairie population. Grass Lastly and least least common is the large large Canada Lastly Great Basin subgoose, probably belonging to the Great species known known as Branta Branta canadensis canadensis moffitti which species three to five percent makes up three percent of the population. Weights of of birds during banding were about birds captured captured during 10 pounds pounds, and it may be recognized recognized by its its large large size, size, 10 bill, and and deep loud call. This bird big feet, large large long bill, bird probably breeds breeds along the migration more migration path of the more numerous species species and joins them in their numerous their flight to the wintering groWlds. grounds. wintering According to information According information developed from band recoveries, , the majority majority of this this subspecies subspecies breeds breeds in recoveries. Alberta 55 degrees latitude and in the westwestAlberta north of 55 degrees latitude portion of of the Northwest Northwest Territories, Territories, west of of 110 110 ern portion degrees longitude (Fig. 1). 1). Many Many band recoveries recoveries are are degrees received along the Mackenzie River River in the Northwest Northwest received Territories usually usually associated settleTerritories associated with human settlements. Information Information from persons persons who ments. who have conducted waterfowl surveys surveys in this this general general area area indicate indicate that nesting habitat sparse and and nesting spread nesting habitat is sparse nesting birds birds are are spread area. thinly over a vast area. Early in the fall, birds begin to move southsouthEarly fall, these these birds ward. By the second week in September September, small small groups ward. of i>anadas '8.anadas can be found found on on the staging staging a. area of r ea in westwestcentral Saskatchewan Saskatchewan and east-central east-central Alberta. central Alberta. This prairie wheat area area of of Canada and it closely is the prairie closely resembles short-grass prairie areas which extend resembles the short-grass prairie areas from there Texas panhandle. from there to the Texas By the first first part part of October October, thousands thousands of of Canadas By are present present on on this area along with thousands thousands of of are Utis area white-fronted geese (Anser (Ansel' albifrons), albifrons), Ross' Ross' geese geese white-fronted (Chen rossi). rossi), and snow snow geese geese (Chen (Chen hyperbol'ea). (Chen hyperborea). As the fall advances advances, other other goose goose- -species on, but species move on, �the Canadas remain. The Thesee birds birds will stay tli Cana la remain. 'tay until the weather becomes that food is no longer longer weather becomes so severe severe that available. Usually this brought about by a available. this condition is brought massive storm storm with cold temperatures temperatures and heavy snow. massive nesting, and rearing of This allows little little time time for for uesting rearing of young flight before before weather on weather again puts them on yow1g to flight the m move southward. ove southward. High Line Canada Goose Population. High Population. - This large large canadensis moffitti) moffitti) is found Canada goose (Branta (Branta canadensis wintering Denver, Fort Fort Collins, wintering in the Denver, Collins Greeley Greeley area, area, Platte as far far east east as Prewitt Prewitt Reseralong the South Platte Reservoir, small number near Pueblo Pueblo and Walsenburg, voir, a small number near Walsenburg, and in the San Luis Valley (Fig. 2). Band recovery recovery data data show that the breeding area breeding area for these birds is in northeastern for these birds northeastern Montana and southern Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan. Wintering areas are are in the southern Wintering areas Torrington, Wyoming, area, area, near Torrington near Las Vegas, New New Mexico, on the Bosque del Apache Refuge on the Grande south of Albuquerque, Mexico, and Rio G1·ande Albuquerque New New Mexico aild Colorado as mentioned before (Fig. 2). Colorado mentioned before ' , \. I ~ ~{ ~~ J ... ~ \ .::.;, \ ,,. _,,. - ~ Fig. II Fl9. Ranl~es di of 01• the Sttor Short l lLife l( • Rcnvu Gross .Pra Proifle Great Gran f r l ■ and Gru1, )' X ~:1 ~ 80sin Canada Gaou Goose Sa.1 ,,- cancito Popurot;ons PDputot1on1: 110 winter weather With the coming of wi.Jlter weatber these these geese geese areas in the panhandle of Nebraska, move to wintering wintering areas ebraska, southeast Colorado, southeast Colorado northeast northeast New ew Mexico, and the Texas panhandle. panhandle. All information indicates that flights Texas information indicates flights are made practically practically non-stop three are non-stop and within two or three day.'3. T This occurs about the secsecdayc,. his movement movement usually usually occurs ond week of November, November, but can happen as early early as ond November December l1 according according to November 4 and as late late as December records of of the last last 15 15 years years. . records This population population provides majority of the goose This provides the majority Colorado. Presently, Presently, harvest hunting in Colorado. harvest is about 13,000 birds birds annually by 8,000 8,000 hrmters, hunters, with increases increases 13,000 in both harves harvest t and hunting pressure pressure noted over over the years. Fortunately, Fortunately, the size size of this population has years. this population also been increasing increasing and is presently presently about 80,000 80,000 also birds considering considering all wintering wintering areas areas in Nebraska, birds ebraska, Colorado, Texas Texas and New Colorado, New Mexico. These Canada geese geese remain remain on their wintering These their wintering areas until late late February February or early early March. March. Then with areas milder weather, weather, they move slowly the coming of milder northward, remaining remaining clos closee to the snow line where northward, where For those those birds birds traveling food is available. available, For traveling to the far far north it often means means that they will not reach reach their their north breeding areas until late late May Mayoror the first first of June. June. breeding areas F10. 2 Hl9hline Canado Goon Goose Hi Qll\lh'I~ Con.ado Population Populatlon _.600 800 1000 This is not a large large population geese, This population of Canada geese, numbering birds prior numbering only about 20 to 25 thousand thousand birds prior to the hunting season, great deal of season, but it furnishes furnishes a great many people. people. Average Average size size of hunting opportunity opportunity to manr these birds About 10, 10,000 birds these birds is 10 to 12 pounds. About 000 birds winter in Colorado. Colorado. winter Generally, these geese move into Colorado Generally, these geese Colorado areas areas in midmid-November. time of their their movement November. Again the time movement weather they receive receive in depends upon the type of weather lower Saskatchewan Saskatchewan and northeast northeast Montana. Usually, Usually, lower a large large storm storm will push these these birds birds down down because because it makes food difficult difficult to get. makes �This is the population which has been hunted during special goose season season established established in north-central north-central the special 1964 when when bag limit limit permits permits were were issued. issued. Colorado in 1964 Harvest and hunting pressure pressure have been increasing increasing Harvest year, and in 1966 estimated that about each year, 1966 it was estimated 1200 geese were were bagged by 2900 2900 hunters. system 1200 hunters. The system of closed closed areas areas and regulated regulated harvest harvest has done done much of to provide provide hunting opportunity in proximity proximity to high human population areas. areas. Great Basin Basin Canada Goose. - There There are are many Great sub-populations of th.is this species species (Branta (Branta canadensis canadensis sub-populations moffitti) in the great great basin basin area Montana, Idaho, area of Montana Utah, Wyoming, segment in utah, Wyoming and Colorado. The segment Colorado is confined mainly to Moffat County, County, with some breeding breeding birds birds along the lower White River River Rangely area area and the Colorado River River 9elow below in the Ral1gely Grand Junction. These birds birds belong generally generally to the population in These Wyoming northwestern Colorado inhabiting Wyoming and northwestern inhabiting the River drainage. drainage. These These are are the only historical Green River historical breeding Canada geese geese left in Colorado, and their their breeding nesting is confined to 1·iver river island island habitat habitat along such nesting rivers Park) and the rivers as the Yampa, Green (Brown's Park) Little Snake Snake (Ji'ig. (Fig. 1) 1).. Little recovery information yearling Band recovery information indicates indicates that yearling birds go to Wyoming during the summer. summer. birds go Wyoming to moult during Such areas areas as Pathfinder Pathfinder Reservoir SUch Reservoir and Ocean Lake geese have been leg banded and neck where moulting geese banded is the habitat habitat which they seek seek before before they breeding age. Once they pair nestcome of breeding pair and begin nesting activities, t!ley remain remain close close to the area area where activities, t'1ey where they have decided to nest. appears that that in the fall birds birds migrate of It appears migrate out of Wyoming areas northwest Colorado in mid- to areas into northwest late-November. These These geese late-November. geese usually usually move south south and west ia in Decemher upon weather availwest Decemher depending upon weather and availof food food.. Their generally folability of Their migration migration route generally River,1 and terminates Col01·ado River terminates in the lows the Colorado Imperial Valley of California. California. Imperial This is is not a large large population and probably numTh.is bers less less than five thousand birds; managers bers birds; thus, thus, managers careful that that harvest harvest is not excessive. excessive. This must be careful usually calls restrictive seasons, calls for restrictive seasons, both in bag limit season length, to maintain the highest highest numlimit and season ber of active breeders. breeders. It is is difficult difficult to estimate estimate the ber harvest of of tthese birds, but it probably probably does not exharvest hese birds during an average season in all ceed 500 500 during average hunting season parts of their range, range. parts of their Geese of of this are similar similar in size size to this population are Line" birds birds averaging averaging 10-12 pounds. This is ""High High Line'' large rraces exceeded in one of the large aces of Canada geese geese exceeded size only by Branta canadensis maxima, so-called size Branta canadensis maxima, the so-called giant Canada goose of the Great Great Plains. Plains. Great Basin geese geese begin nesting March with Great Basin nesting in March late May. May. Pairs peak hatching in late Pairs commonly occupy same nest nest site site each year year according according to information the same fnformation derived from from the neck banding $tuc\y. study. This is a vigorderived vigor- ous, sh·ong strong rrace geese which do much to ace of Canada geese of northwest northwest Colorado rivers. enhance the beauty of rivers. Resident Canada Goose Populations. Populations. - ExperimenResident Experimental work' work has shown that local local populations populations of Canada geese geese can be developed with a minimum amount of effort, providing providing necessary necessary habitat effort, habitat conditions are are present. In most areas, areas, some of nesting present. 1n some form form of nesting sites sites usually constitute must be be. provided because because these these usually constitute the limiting factor factor in the permanent establishment of a limiting permanent establishment resident breeding breeding population. This can be accomaccomresident plished by construction construction of artificial artificial nesting platforms plished nesting platforms which provide provide safer safer nesting less predation predation mormornesting with less tality than natural sites (See tality natural sites (See Leaflet Leaflet #48). -"48). Resident Resident populations which started in Colorado are are wh.ich have been started discussed separately. separately. discussed NORTH-CENTRAL COLORADO COLORADOFLOCK NORTH-CENTRAL FLOCK general title This general title includes includes those those resident resident populations existing Larimer and Boulder tions el.dSting in Larimer Boulder counties counties and the vicinity 3). As of the spring spring of vicinity of Denver (Fig. 3). 1967 these numbered about 800, 800, 400 and these populations populations numbered 1967 geese, respectively. respectively. The Denver flock 2,000 Canada geese, existence since 1930's,1 probably probably has been in existence since the 1930's stemming from from a flock of geese geese purchased purchased from local local stemming hunters live decoys 'became became illegal. illegal. These These birds hunters when when live birds were rewere obtained by Dan and Virgie Virgie Gallagher, Gallagher, and released on Bowles Lake in Jefferson Larleased Jefferson County. County. The Larimer and Boulder Boulder county populations were begun by imer populations were introducing goslings into these int\·oducing these areas areas in the mid 1 s. Canada geese early 1960 1960's. geese of of this 1950's and the early this large race. According to Hanson flock belong to the large race. According (1965), birds Denver area area are are Branta birds in the Denver Branta canaden(1965), sis maxima. maxima. It is believed mixture of this spesis believed that a mixture this species and Branta Branta canadensis canadensis moffitti is present. present. This cies belief data on the belief is based on weight data the 10-12-pound class recorded recorded during during banding. class generally bounded by Denver, area generally Denver, Greeley Greeley The area Fort Collins Collins has great great potential potential for resident resident and Fort breeding Canada geese. geese. Numerous lakes and other other breeding Nwnerous lakes good habitat exist exist and with careful careful managemanagegood goose habitat resident population can be increased ment this resident increased to an estimated 10,000 10,000 birds. birds. estimated SAN LUIS FLOCK SAN LUIS VALLEY VALLEY FLOCK area with most potential potential for a resident resident Canada Canada The area goose flock in Colorado is this this high mountain valley south-central Colorado (Fig. 3}. 3). Small plants in south-central plants of geese were released on the Monte Vista Vista Management geese were released area near near Monte Vista Vista and the Russell Russell Lakes Lakes in the area north the midnorth end of the tbe Valley near near Saguache in 'the These were not followed by additional rere1950's. These leases because decision to use available gosleases because of the decision use available Larimer, and later later the Boulder Boulder, County County lings in the Larimer, release programs. programs. release Significant releases of geese geese have been been made in Significant releases of the past past few few years Vista National Wildyears by the Monte Vista life Refuge on the refuge south of Monte Vista. Vista. The birds introduced to excellent habitat and have birds were introduced excellent habitat responded during the spring responded well. The population during spring of �resident Canada goose population in Colorado Fig. 3. Introduced Introduced resident 1967 was es estimated 600 geese. geese. Many Many of of 1967 timated at about 600 these birds have pioneered pioneered to favorable thes e birds favorable habitat in of the Valley. other parts parts of These birds are are probably of the sub-species sub-species Branta Branta These birds canadensis moffitti moffitti, with weights in the 10-12 canadensis pound range. range. pound This population is currently currently being protected protected by seasons in the southern southern and western western closed hunting seasons portion of the San Luis Valley. It is anticipated anticipated that portion these protections remain in effect until this this these protections will remain and is able to population has filled the better better habitat habitat and surplus of of young birds. provide a surplus young birds. 200, although actual actual numbers Size of flock is about 200, are difficult to as ascertain pairs of these these birds birds are certain since pairs are beginning to pioneer areas as Jumbo are pioneer to such areas Reservoir and the South South Platte Platte River. River. Nests Nests and Reservoir broods occur in both areas. areas. broods have been known known to occur believed that the majority majority of these these geese beIt is believed belong to the sub-species sub-species Branta Branta canadensis canadensis moffitti, since birds birds for original original releases releases were were obtained from since the Denver area area and Bear Bear River National Wildlife Refuge. generally limited, limited, and it is Nesting habitat is generally anticipated that this flock will never never become large. large. anticipated furnish some hunting through proproHowever, it will furnish young and by attracting attracting and holding duction of -young migrating geese. migrating JOHNSONFLOCK JOHNSON FLOCK LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE after Mr. Paul Paul Johnson and This flock is named after occurs on on a lake on on his property property along the South South occurs Platte River River southeast southeast of Ovid, Ovid, Colorado (Fig. 3). Platte 1965. The giant Canada goose goose.. Hanson, Harold C. 1965. Southern Illinois Illinois Univ. Univ. Press. Press. Carbondale Carbondale and Edwardsville. illus. Edwardsville. 226 226 pp., illus. Jack R. Grieb Jack Research Leader Wildlife Research Leader July, 1967 1967 Julyj �cts Outdoor Facts t 0 PUBLISHED BV BY THE THE PUBLISI-IED COLORADO COLORADO GAME GAME, FISH FISH nnd and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. Game Leaflet Game Information Information Leaflet Number 59 Number 59 "PELLET-PLOT ROBOT" "PELLET-PLOT ROBOT" AN AID AID IN IN MAKING MAKING PELLET-GROUP PELLET-GROUP COUNTS V -- AN COUNTS!/ Estimating days of Estimating animalanimal-days of range use by counting fecal droppings is aa technique in general general use by by big game research research and and management people. The techtechnique, called a "pellet-group "pellet-group count," count," involves counting the number of groups," of fecal groups, or "pellet"pellet-groups," found found within sample sample areas areas of of known known size, size, usually 1/ 100 acre days 1/100 acre circular circular plots. An An estimate estimate of of animalanimal-days use per per acre acre is obtained by dividing the estimated estimated of fecal groups per per acre acre by the average daily number of defecation defecation rate. rate. Customarily, the making of of pelletpellet-group Customarily, group counts requires requires two two men. One One man holds the end o( o(aa string string or rope (11 100 acr (11 feet 99 inches long for aa 1/ 1/100 acree plot) over the center center of the plot. At the opposite end of of the string, string, the other man walks about about the plot center center in aa circle circle and counts the pellet-groups pellet-groups within it. Several Several years years ago, ago, I needed aa way way of making pellet pellet counts by myself. myself. So, So, I invented aa device I call aa "Pellet-Plot " With this device, one "Pellet-Plot Robot. Robot." one man can pellet counts as accurately accurately or more more accurately accurately make pellet than two two men can without it, because because it holds one one end of a string string firmly firmly at any desired desired height over the exact center center of the pellet plot. Usually, when when one attempts to hold hold the end of aa string string over aa. plot center, center, it wobbles wobbles about about the center center as he shifts shifts positions positions to face the person person doing doing the counting. When When two two men make pellet Pellet Plot pellet counts together, together, using the ""Pellet Robot," Robot," it frees frees one one for recording recording data or helping with the count. count. The device is light and in three three parts parts for portability portability (Fig. 2). 2). The steel steel "stake" "stake" may be carried carried in a knapsack, and and the aluminum "staff" "staff" with its its "boss" "boss" doubles as aa good good walking stick. stick. the center center of the plot. Secure "staff" "staff" to ground at the "stake" "stake" by placing either either hollow hollow end of the "staff "staff over the handle end of of the "stake.'' "stake." Then slide slide the "boss" "boss" up or down down on on the "stake" "stake" to aa height that that will clear the top of of the brush, brush, and and secure secure it with its clear thumbscrew. ace the looped end of thumbscrew. Pl Place of a string string over the top of the "staff" "staff" so it rides rides on and is supported supported by the "boss. by "boss."" Then take hold of of the other end end and and walk away away from the plot center center until the string string is taut 1). Using the taut string string as the radius radius of of the (Fig. 1). circular circular plot, you you walk around the "staff" "staff" in aa circle circle and count count all pellet pellet groups seen seen within it. and If pelletgroups are pellet-groups are very numerous numerous or the cover is dense, two two men counting will obtain greater greater accuracy. Using this method, the man not holding holding the free free string walks mid-way between his helper helper end of the string center, counting pellet pellet gr groups and the plot center, oups between himself and the plot center. center. Usually, when when two two men working together Plot Robot," together use the "Pellet"Pellet-Plot Robot," one one counts pellets pellets while the other records records the number recorder may may and kinds seen. Also, if he wishes, the recorder use use the extra extra time gained to compile data. HOW TO USE HOWTO USE To set set up the "Pellet-Plot "Pellet- Plot Robot," you you take bold hold of of the handles of of the "stake" "stake" and push it into the 1 Contribution from Federal lContribution Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-101-R. W-IOI-R. ~-=Fig. groups with ""Pellet-Plot Pellet-Plot Robot." Fig.!.1. Counting Counting pelletpellet-groups �HOWTO MAKE EOWTOMAKE COST COST constructed (Fig, (Fig. 2). The device is simply constructed 2), I made "stake," which was fabricated fabricated by mine except for the "stake," a welder. welder. I turned turned the "boss" "boss" from a piece of hard hard better material. material. Too, maple. However, aluminum is a better if you have no way way of of turning turning the "boss" "boss" round, it would work nearly nearly as well if made made sciuare. square. The aluwould minum tubing I bought from hardware store. store. from a hardware you make your own own "Pellet-Plot "Pellet-Plot Robot" it will If you cost you you about $4. $4.50 dollar 50 for materials materials and another another dollar or two welder fabricate fabricate the "stake. 01· two for having aa welder " stake, If order, they may be you prefer prefer having one made to order, P-T Machined Products Products Company, Company, obtained from P-T P.O. 131, Timnath, Colorado 80547. 1967 P .0. Box 131, 80547. The 1967 price price is quoted at $9.10 each, unpainted, or $8.65 in of 25 more. lots of 25 or more. enamel for the ""stake" I specify blue enamel stake" and '"boss" boss" to make the device more more easily easily seen seen when when left lying seems to occur in in big game on the ground. Since blue seems less frequently red or yellow, espeesperange types less frequently than red cially in the fall, cially fall, blue equipment tends to stand out better against most background vegetation than the better against commonly used red or yellow. NAME NAME R. Shepherd Harold R. Researcher Wildlife Researcher July, 1967 1967 .July, ITEM ITEM QUAN. . QUAN A A B 8 C C 0 D 2 II .. 5/8" Dia. Dia. x 4" 5/8" 4• cold-rolled cold-rolled 1teel steel 5/8" DI Dia. 15" " 5/8" a . x 15" " " I I I Thumb screw sere• Staff Stoff E ' Bas. 80~• 1/4"x I 1/4" 1/4" thumb thumb screw steel l/4"a sere• steel 3/4" 0.0. x 5/B"I.D. 54" aluminum aluminum lubina 3/4" O.D. a 5/8" 1.0. xL 54" tubi~ I"x 2 3/4° 3/4" Dia. aluminum aluminum t"a I Stoke Sta~e " " SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS . . . NOTE-Round all edQt•. edges. NOTE-Round all -- - Enamel Enamel stake and bas• boss blu11 blue. . stake and 2 3/4" Dia. BOSS BOSS ~'~ I I I ~ PELLET-PLOT PELLET-PLOT ROBOT ROBOT STAKE H.R. H. R. S. "Pellet-Plot Robot" plans and materials. materials. Fig. 2. ''Pellet-Plot �Ot.1tdoor Outdoor Facts Facts 1-,-- PUBUSHEO PUBLISHED BY THE THE dJ · ,Ilf' ~ 441' COLORADO GAME, GAME, FISH and and PARKS PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COL.ORAOO Gan1.e Leaner Game Information Information Leaflet Nun-iber 60 Number 60 'J'IIE SEASON RY MULE THE BREEDING BREEDING SEASON IN IN l\tIIGRATO MIGRATORY MULE DEER DEER 11 Einarsen Einarsen (1956:372) tabulated tabulated "the "the usual usual dates dates of occurrence" on 'mating period" occurrence" on the '"mating period" of of mule deer deer from from Arizona, Arizona, California, California, Colorado. Colorado, Nevada, Nevada, New New Mexico, central central Oregon, Oregon, Utah, and Alberta. Alberta, Canada, which e.:,.1:end extend from from October October 24 24 to January January 27. Dates Dates listed listed for Colorado Colorado mule deer deer range range from from November November 15 ·re15 to January January 15. 15. However, this this information information was '"reported ported by local local observers" observers" and and the specific specific populations tions and methodology methodology were were not identified. identified. Tileston Tileston (1962:52) rutting season" (1962:52) stated stated that that the ""rutting season" for Colorado begins arou11d rado mule deer deer ""begins around mid-October mid-October and continues continues until mid-December mid-December" " with the peak occuroccuring in ""late late November." November." No No supporting supporting data data are are cited cited for for these these generalizations. generalizations. This This review review of literaliterature ture summarizes summarizes documented documented estimates estimates of of the breedbreeding season season in mule deer deer with emphasis emphasis on Colorado Colorado populations, populations. METHODS METHODS Shepherd {1955) (1955) summru:ized summarized data from from 107 107 pregpregShepherd nant mule deer central Co lorado sampled deer from from westwest-central Colorado sampled intermittently (during the gestation gestation period) period) from from 1949 1949 intermittently through 1955. 1955. No No attempt attempt was made made to estimate estimate breedbreedthrough dates from this this material. material. The original original field data, data, ing dates however, however, were were still still available available and sufficient sufficient fetal fetal weights and measur measurements existed from 93 93 of these these weights ements existed pregnancies to permit permit estimation estimation of their their probable probable pregnancies conception dates. dates. This This was accomplished accomplished by use use of of conception the prenatal prenatal young growth growth curves curves of Hudson and and Browman (1959). (1959). Specifically, Specifically, one one or more more of three three Browman growth curves curves (1) (1) length length of of ear ear auricle. auricle, (2) (2) length growth from from forehead forehead {crown) (crown) to rump, rump, and (3) (3) the ratio ratio of forehead (crown)-rump (crown)-rump to weight were were used used depending depending forehead of data data available available from from each each fetus. fetus. If on the amount or two or or three three curves curves were were employed employed the midpoint midpoint between the dates dates thus calculated calculated was taken as the probable conception conception date. date. Anderson Anderson and and Medin (1966: (1966: probable 285) depicted depicted the probable probable conception conception dates dates based based on on 285) aa somewhat somewhat similar similar evaluation evaluation of of 50 50 pregnant pregnant mule deer deer collected collected (1961-65) from from the Cac.he Cache la Poudre Poudre drainage drainage of north-central north-central Colorado. Colorado. Their Their estimates, estimates, however, however, were were based based on an additional additional growth growth curve curve 1 contribution from Federal 1Contribution Federal Aid Projects Projects W-105-R W-105-R W-38-R. and W38- R. (length of hind foot) and and on the shap,e shape and appearance appearance of early early fetuses fetuses of both known known and and approximately approximately of known known ages ages (Hudson (Hudson and Browman Browman 1959). 1959). RESULTS RESULTS AND AND DISCUSSION DISCUSSION The breeding The available available literature literature on on documented documented breeding season season dates dates in migratory migratory mule deer deer from from California, California, Montana, and l. Exand Utah is is summarized summarized in Table Table 1. treme J anuary 25 treme dates dates range range from from January January 4 to January 25 (21 (21 days) days) at at Sequoia, Sequoia, California, California, to November November 15 15 to January January 30 30 (76 (76 days) in utah. utah, Estimated Estimated dates dates of maximum maximum breeding breeding activity activity are are not directly directly compacomparable varrable since since these these are are interpreted interpreted dilfferently differently by various authors. authors. Some investigators investigators assume assume 50, 60, and others others 95 95 percent percent of of calculated calculated conception conception dates dates to indicative of of ··maximum" "maximum" breeding breeding activity. activity. With be indicative this interpreted this stricture, stricture, maximum maximum activity activity has has been been interpreted as as involving involving about one one week: January January 7 to January January 13, Sequoia, December 26, Sequoia, California; California; December December 19 19 to December Truckee- Verdi, Verdi, California; California; and and No11•ember November 29 to DeTruckeecember cember 55 in Utah, Maximum Maximum breeding breeding activity activity has has also also been estimated estimated to include include aa peri!od period of about three three weeks; November Interstate, November 15 15 to Decemb«~r December 6, Interstate, California; awbone, California; November November 23 23 to Decem))er December 15, JJawbone, California; NationCalifornia; and November November 10 10 to December December 1, National Bison Range, Montana. Colorado, the calculated calculated extr1~me extreme range range of the the In Colorado, deer breeding breeding period period includes includes 62 days days in westwestmule deer central the Cache la central Colorado Colorado and 80 80 days within within the la Poudre Poudre drainage drainage (Figure (Figure 1). 1). Maximum Maximum breeding breeding dates dates inferr ed from inferred from both Colorado Colorado populations populations are are seen seen to occurred within a 20 day periLod period (November have occurred (November 25 to December his period December 15). 15). T This period includes includes about 70 perpercent of the calculated based calculated dates. dates. Two other other records records based finding new-bor new-bornn fawns fawns extend the the extreme dates on finding extreme dates of of probable probable breeding breeding by Colorado Colorado mule mule deer. deer. One fawn, fawn, believed believed to have been born born about about September September 25, 1964, 1964, was found by a rancher rancher on on the the Rio Grande Grande drainage neai· near South Fork, Fork, Colorado Colorado (Anonymous drainage 1964a: 1964a: Feltner Feltner 1965:15). 1965:15). The other other fawn, reported reported by Beryl Kelley of of Slater, Slater, Colorado, Colorado, was was saicl said to Mr. Beryl have been born Columborn on on September September 14, 14, 1964, 1964, near near Columbine, Moffat County, Colorado Colorado (Anonymous (Anonymous 1964b). 1964b). �Comparative breeding breeding season season e elates estimated for some migratory populations. Table 1. Compal'ative lates estimated I )t' some migratory mule mul e deer deer popul at iuns . Extremes F.xtremes Sample Sample Size Size Dates Da Les Maximum Ma ximum Activity ActivJ.ty State S ~at<' Herd Herd Ca lif. Calif. Yosemite Yosemite 10 Dec. Dec. to Lo 27 JJan. :in. not given given not given given Ca lif. I i.f. Interstate loters ta te 14 Jan.''< w L4 Nov. Nov. to 4 Jan, Nov.. to 6 Dec. Dec:, 15 Nov 43 Calif. C, Lif. JJawbone awbon 1l Nov. 'llMid-Dec. 'Mid-Dec . " not given not given (p. S7 57)) (p. 15 Dec:. Dec. 23 Nov. No v . to 15 (p. 83) (p. not given not given Dec. (p.85) Dec. (p.85) mid-Dee mid-Dec (p. (p . 84) 57 not given given to 31 Dec. Dec. "early "ear ly Nov. Nov, to end of end of JJan." an. " "Nov. thn1 thru Jan Jan." "Nov. ." 6 Nov. Nov. to co 31 Jan. lI Calif. Calif. Doyle Doy le (Lassen(LassenWashoe) Washoe) Dec .,·, 26 Dec.. 18 Nov. Nov. to 27 Dec.''< 26 Nov. Nov. to 7 Dec 72 Calif. . Calif Buttermilk Buttermilk 6 Dec. Dec . to 23 Jan.* Ja n.* 67 23 Dec. Dec . to 6 JJan.* an . * to 25 Jan.,·, Jan. ,,< 7 Jan. to 13 Jan. J a n,1'1 * to Jan."!' Dec.. to to 2 Jan,>< 19 Dec Dec .* co 26 Dec."!' Ca lif. Sequoia Sequoia Calif. Calif . Truckee Truckee- Calif. Verdi Ver di Colo. Cache la Colo. Cache Poudre Poudre West West Centra 1 Centra t, Jan. 4 Jan. t, 4 D Dec. c. Mont. Mont . Na tiona tiona 1 Bison Range Range Bison 5 Nov. Nov. to 26 26 Dec. Dec. Statewide Statewide 30 Dec. 29 15 Nov. Nov . to 30 Dec . Z9 Nov. Nov . to 55 Dec Dec.. * * "last few in "last few days da ys in Oct. ----to Oct. the end • to the' of Jan." p.. 460. of Jan." 4-60 . p 30 Jan,* Jan."!' 20 Nov. 15 Nov. Nov. to 30 Dec . Nov . to 2 Dec. Utah Utah Central Centra 1 ,~* 29 29 21 Dec. 25 Nov. to 15 Dec. 50 so March .' 25 Nov. Nov. to to 66 March 13 Nov. Nov. to Lo 15 Dec. Dec. 93 93 Dec , Nov . to 1 Dec. 10 Nov. 180 LBO 7 Feb. 17 Nov. to 7 F b, Dates graphs. Oa ces aapproximated pproximated from Erom gra pb s . 43 232 232 Method Method Reference Referenc e Observation of copula copulation over aa Observation tion over period several years period of several years Forehead-rump growth Fore head - i·u mp length Length growth curve curve of 12 known-age knowii-age whitewhitetailed deer fetuses developed ea i Led deer fetuses developed by Cheatum Cheatum and and Morton (1946) ~orLon (1946) Field of "rutting Field observation observation of"rutting activity" BC tivity 1' as above above (Dixon 1934: 85) (Dixon 1934: Examination of Examination of female female genitals ge nitals Inferred In erred from from graph graph based, based, in part, above stateme statements. part, on above nts, Apparently foot Apparently used used the hind hind foot length curve of Chattin Length curve Chattin ((1948: 1948: which interpolateded from from ich was was inLerpola 28) wh thee forehead-rump forehead-rump length growth growth th length curve of 12 known-age curve known-ag white-tailed white-tailed deer (Cheatum and and deer fetuses fet uses (Cheatum Morton 1946). Morton 194 6) . Forehead-rump length growth Forehead-rump l eng th growth curve of 12 white-tailed deer curve whi te- tailed deer fetuses developeded by Cheatum Cheatum fetus~s develop and Morton (1 (1946) and refined refined 946 ) and a nd Morton by by Armstrong Armstrong (1950). (1950). (Cha ttinn 1948) 1948) (Chatti (Leopold el et a1. 1951) (Leopold l. 1951) " ,, " (Bischoff 1957:94) 1957:94) (Bischoff ti ti II " " II " 4 growth growth curves curves (Hudson 1959) (Hudsoa and aad Browman Browman 1959) 3 curvess 3 growth growth curv (Hudson 1959) (Hudson and a nd Browman Browman 1959) and back-dating from two nnd back- da t ing from fawn birth birth dates dates by the fawn the average a~erage gestation gestation period. period . Forehead-rump length growth growth Foreheadrump Length curve of mule deer developed curve of mule deer deve l oped from 5 known-age known-age fetuses fetuses by from Hudson and Browman Browman (1959). (1 959) . Hudson and Forehead-rump growth Forehead-r~mp length l ength grow th curve known-age whitecurve of 12 known-age whitetailed deer fetuses developed tatled deer fet 11s es developed by Chea Cheatum tum and and Morton Mor ton (1946). ( 1946) . From captured fawns: "By deFrom capwred fllwns: "By termining termini ng the birth birth dates, dates, usaverage gestation periing ng the t he average gestation period, and calcu18ti.ng calculating back." i.od , and back," " (Lassen, Ferrel, (Lassen, Fer rel, and Leach Leach 1952:219) and 1952 : 219) II This paper This pape r This This paper paper (Hudson a and (Hudson nd Browman Browm· n 1959:299, 302) 302) 1959:299, (Robinette and GashGash(Robinett e and wiler wiler 11950:458) 950 : 458 ) (Robinette and and GashGash(Robinette wiler 1950::4 459) wiler 1950 59 ) �30 30 . WISTEIN WESTERN mum. COLORADO, 1!49,1155 1949·1955 ,i 93 Nmm MOTHERS EllR!M[ EXTREME oms: DATES: I! 13 MOY NOV .. 14 IU. JAN, 25 25 a:, 15 10 um CACHE L LAA mm. PDUORE, 1161-1161 1961·1965 50 50 MOlfffRS MOTHERS IXIR[N[ EXTREME DAHS: DATES: 11 17 MOY, NOV .. , J1 flB. FEB. 25 "°20 15 15 sample biological indices. sample size size than valid valid biological indices. Moreover, Moreover, Hudson Hudson and Browman Browman {1959:302) (1959:302) stress, stress, on empirical empirical grounds, relative inaccuracy grounds, the relative inaccuracy of growth growth curves curves for prenatal than 50 mm in crown-rump prenatal young less less than crown-rump length (embryos) (embryos) and postulate postulate that that early early fetal fetal developme,nt velopment may be more more accurate1y accurately estimated estimated by "shape "shape and appearance appearance of external external characters. characters." " More information is More b2Lsic basic information is needed needed on the reproductive reproductive biology of migratory migr atory mule deer deer such such as the length length and possible estrus and number number of possible estrus periods periods and the length of between fertilization of time time between fertilization and implantation. implantation. The average period and growth average gestation gestation period growth curves curves of preprenatal young obviously obviously need to be based based on much larger larger sample sample sizes. sizes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 10 IO 5 o 11·17 18•24 25-1 .!-S 11·1718,24 2-8 NOV, NOV. 9-IS 5 6-12 27·3 4-IO 9,15 16·22 16·22 23·29 23-29 30· 30-5 6--12 13--19 13-19 20·2& 20-2627-3 4-10 oe_c JAN Ff;B DEC. JAN. FEB. Fig. Fig. 1. Distril;)ution Distribution 0£ of approximate approximate b1·eeding breeding dates dates in Colorado Colorado mule deer derived derived from from the fetal growth curves curves of of Hudson Hudson and Browman Browman (1959). (1959). 1I thank Harold Harold R. Shephe1·d Shepherd for for providing providing the origioriginal data. wester n Colorado data on western Colorado mule deer deer litters. litters. Most of this this material material was collected collected by Bertram Bertram D, D. Baker, Baker, Paul F. J esse F. Gilbert, Gilbert, Howard R. Stiehm, and Jesse Williams. Robert L. Hoover and Wayne W. Sandfort Williams. Robert assistedl assisted in locating locating information information on late late fawning dates. dates. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE verified and and the fawn The Rio Grande rrecord ecord was verified photographed photographed by Richard Richard N. N. Denney, Denney, Wildlife Researcher, searcher, Colorado Colorado Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks DepartDepartment. In In assigning assigning probable probable conception conception dates dates to these these fawns, it o backdate it is necessary necessary tto backdate by an average average gestation pe1•iod. period. This is often cited cited as 210 210 days. HowHowtation ever, a review of of the literatul'e literature suggests suggests that that few few ever, factual factual data data have been published. published. lJ! Ip..Arizona, Arizona, records records wer weree obtained on four penned mule deer deer over three three gestation periods periods yielding yielding nine definitely definitely known known ges ges-gestation tation tation period period lengths lengths (Nichol 1938:30). 1938:30). Additional records records from from penned mule deer deer in California California involving three three deer deer and three three gestation gestation pe1·iods periods resulted resulted in five known known gestation gestation periods periods (Dixon (Dixon 1934:84). 1934:84). Robinette and Gashwiler Gashwiler (1950:464) (1950:464) erroneously erroneously rereported these these data data as four gestation gestation periods. periods. II have ported combined the Arizona Arizona and California California data and comcomputed an arithmetic arithmetic mean, median, standard standard deviadeviation, and and range range of of gestation gestation in penned mule deer deer to be 202.6, 202.6, 203;±5.4, 203,-±5.4, and and 193-210 193-210 days, respectively. respectively. The newborn fawns found in September September 1964, 1964, were were The probably conceived conceived then, about March March 6, 6, 1964, 1964, (Rio (Rio probably Grande) and and February February 23, 23, 1964, 1964, (Moffat (Moffat County). County). These breeding These estimates estimates extend extend the approximate approximate breeding period of migratory migratory mule. mule dee1• deer in Colorado Colorado from from period November 13 13 to March March 6, or 113 113 days. This is the November llongest ongest breeding breeding period period estimated estimated for mule deer deer in in any any state. state. A A Colorado Colorado fawning fawning period period peaking from from about June 16 16 to July July 6 and ranging ranging from from about about June. June about 44 to September September 25 25 may may tllus thus be inferred inferred from from all all available information. information. available It should be recognized hat the breeding recognized tthat breeding and fawning fawning' season season approximations approximations based based on on growth cur- ves of of prenatal prenatal young young may be more more a function function of of Anderson, A. E. and D. E. Medin. 1966. 1966. Reproductive Reproductive Anderscm, studies. 290. In Game Research studies. Pp. 275275-290. Research Report, Report, Jan. 1966, Part Fish and Parks Part 2. Colorado Colorado Game, Fish Parks Department, Denver. (processed). Department, Denver. (processed). Anonymous. 1964a. Mule deer deer fawn. The Daily N. N. W. W. Colorado Press-Craig. Colorado Press-Craig. November November 30:2. Believe it or Empire~ Anonymous. 1964b. Believe or not. The EmpireCourier, Craig, Craig, Colorado. Colorado. Oct. 8:1. Courier, Armstrong, R. A. 1950. 1950. Fetal Fetal development development of the Armstrong, the norU1ern northern white-tailed white-tailed deer. deer. Amer. Amer. Midl. Nat., Nat., 43(3),:66043(3):650- 666. BischofJf, breeding season Bischoff, A. I. 1957. The breeding season of some some California deer herds. herds. Calif. Fish Fish and Game California 43(1):91-96. 43(1) :91-96. Chattin, J. E E.. 1948. Breeding Breeding season season and productivity productivity in in the Interstate Interstate deer deer herd. herd. Calif. Fish Fish and Game 34(1):25-31 34(1):25-31 Cheahma, Cheatum, E. L. and G. G. 1!. H. Morton. 1946. 1946. Breeding Breeding seasons seasons of white-tailed white-tailed deer deer in New New Yo1·k. York. JJ.. Wildl. Mgmt. 10(3):24910(3):249-263. Mgmt. 263 . J . S. 1934. A study of the ille Dixon, Dixon, J. life history history and food food habits of mule deer deer in California. California. Calif. Calif. Fish habits Fish and Game 20(3 20(3 and 4);1146. 4):1-146. Einarsen, Einarsen, A. S. 1956. Life of the mule deer. deer. Pp. Pp. 363390. W, P. Taylor 390. gi !D W. Taylor (Editor), (Editor), The deer deer of North America. Harrisburg, Pa. America. The Stackpole Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pa. and the Wildlife Management Washington, Management Inst. Inst.,, Washington, D. D. C. 668pp. �Feltner, 1965. A record record for for lateness? Colorado Feltner, G. 1965. lateness? Colorado Outdoors 14(1):15. Outdoors 14(1) :15. Hudson, and L. Browman. 1959. 1959. Embryonic Embryonic and Hudson P. P. and L. G. Browman. and fetal development mule deer. deer. JJ.. Wildl. fetal development of the the mule Wildl. Mgmt. 23(3) 23(3):295-304. Mgmt. :295-304. Lassen, W., C. M. Ferrel, and H. Leach. 1952. Lassen, R. W ., C, M, Ferrel, and Leach. 1952. Food habits, and condition condition of the the Doyle Doyle Food habits, productivity productivity and mule deer deer herd. herd. Calif. Calif. Fish Fish and and Game 38(2):211mule Grune 38(2):211224. 224. Leopold, A. S., T. Riney, Riney, R. R. Mccain, McCain, and and L. Tevis, Jr. Jr. L. Tevis, Leopold, 1951. The The Jawbone Jawbone deer deer herd. herd. Calif. Calif. Div. Fish and and 1951. Div. Fish Game Bull. Bull. 44. 139pp. 139pp. Game Robinette, L.. and and J. J. S. Gashwiler Gashwiler. . 1950. 1950. Breeding Breeding Robinette, W. L season, productivity and fawning period of the the mule mule season, productivity and fawning period deer utah. Wildl. Mgmt. 14(4):457-469. deer in utah, JJ.. Wildl. Mgmt. 14(4):457469. Shepherd, H. R. 1955. 1955. Embryo Embryo and and productivity productivity index Shepherd, index studies. Pp. 181 181-188. In Federal Federal Aid studies. Pp. - 188, In Aid Quarterly Quarterly Report, July July. . Colorado Colorado Game Game and and Fish Fish Department, Report, Department Denver. 117-225 pp. Denver. 117225 pp. Tileston, J. J. 1962. 1962. A resume resume of Colorado Colorado big game rereTileston, big game search p projects, 1939-1957. E. Yeager Yeager (Editor) (Editor). . search rojects, 19391957. L. E. Tech. Bull. Bull. NO.9. Colorado Game Game and and Fish Fish DepartDepartTech. No. 9. Colorado ment, Denver. Blpp. 81pp. ment, Denver. Allen E.. Anderson Anderson Allen E Wildlife Researcher Wildlife Researcher and and 11 Dean Medin Dean E. E. Medin Wildlife Researcher Wildlife Researcher Nichol, 1938. Experimental Experimentalfeedingofdeer. Univ. Nichol A. A. 1938. feeding of deer. Univ. Arizona Agr. Exp. Exp. sta., Sta., Tech. Tech. Bull. Bull. No. 75. Tucson, Tucson. Arizona Agr. pp. 39 pp. 11Resigned 1966. Resigned November November 11, 1966. �Outdoor Facts . r- q:f PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUBLI I ED BV COLORADO GAME, FISH COLO ADO GA E , Fl H and PARKS PAR S DEPT DEPT.. Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet L' Number umber 61 AIR-GROUND COMPARISON COUNTS BREEDING IR-GROUND COMPARISO COU TS OF OF BREEDING DUCKS IIN THE SAN LUIS LUIS VALLEy!J DUCKS THE SA VALLEY!/ Waterfowl surveys are Waterfowl breeding breeding population population surveys are conducted Colorado, as well ducted each year year in Colorado, well as in many sections States and Canada. Canada. These These sections of the United United States spring surveys surveys help determine determine the status of spring the annual annual status maJor breeding duck and goose populations populations on the ma1or breeding grounds across across the Ultimately, they yield grounds the country. country. Ultimately, yield information basic basic ttoo the yearly information yearly fall flight flight forecast. forecast. Censusing breeding numbers Censusing of duck breeding numbers is largely largely an aerial operation involving involving light light aircraft sample aerial operation aircraft and a sample ,f one-fourth one-fourth mile estab,lished in major major ,f mile wide transects transects established Jreeding areas. areas. Information Information derived derived when using using this this .:>reeding technique must must be reasonably accurate if it is is to be technique reasonably accurate significance. Aerial survey data of management management significance. Aerial survey data can subject to considerable corrected for be subject considerable bias bias if not corrected for "visibility rates," birds present seen. "visibility rates, " or for birds present but not seen. Aerial observers observers simply simply cannot cannot see see all all birds occupyAerial birds occupytransect at the time time of coverage. coverage. ing a transect transects conjunction with regular air transects. transects. transects in conjunction regular air Ducks observed observed from from the ground were rethe air air and ground were recorded species according according to pairs, pairs, lone drakes, drakes, corded by species lone females, females, and groups groups of ducks ducks not in pairs. pairs. Air and ground ground counts were compared compared by species species Air counts were for all all air-ground comparison transects for air-ground comparison transects combined. combined. The basic that the ground ground count basic assumption assumption here here is that represented the total number of birds birds actually represented total number actually present present survey. The rereon the the transects transects at the time time of the survey. s'ulting as ratios, sulting comparisons,' comparisons, expressed expressed as ratios, are are shown for 1964-67. 1964- 67. These These ratios were by species species in Table Table 1 for ratios were computed in the manner for species: computed the following following manner for each each species: No. of breeding breeding pairs pairs idenidentified to species species from from air air-ground comparisor comparisor tified air _ air-ground breeding pairs pairs idenratio) No. of breeding iden- - ratio ratio (visibility ('visibility ratio) tified to species species from tified from ground Visibility for major major breeding breeding grounds grounds are Visibility rates rates for are best determined through air-ground comparison studstudbest determined through air-ground comparison ies. In Colorado, Colorado, such been conducted conducted ies. such studies studies have been annually in the San Luis Luis Valley since 1964. 1964. These annually Valley since These studies were were started started as a segment segment of the intensive studies the intensive "San Luis Valley Valley Cooperative Mallard Investigation" "San Luis Cooperative Mallard Investigation" effort to refine population estimates estimates in an effort refine breeding breeding population for that that area. area. for , Air-ground comparison comparison studies studies in the San Luis Air-ground Luis Valley involved establishment of 26 26 air-ground air-ground Valley involved the establishment comparison transects transects totaling totaling about 130 miles. miles. These These comparison transects were one-fourth mile wide, with some transects were one-fourth mile some su:' superimposed regular air air transects. transects. Both air air and perimposed on regular ground counts counts were were made made of each transects. ground each of the 26 transects. Ground air Ground crews crews coordinated coordinated their their work work with with the air crew to insure insure that that they they were were not COl,IIlting c01,1nting.a given giver crew transect at the same same time time or shortly after after the other. other. transect or shortly This was done to prevent prevent counting counting interference interference beThis between the more than days elapsed elapsed tween the two crews. crews. No No more than three three days Detween air and ground ground coverages anyone oetween air coverages of any one transect. transect. aerial crew flew the the air-ground air-ground comparison The aerial crew comparison l'Contribution from Federal Air Air Project Project W-88-R. licontribution from Federal W-88-R. Fig. 1. 1. Aerial Aerial waterfowl waterfowl census, Luis Valley. Valley. Fig. census, San Luis �Birds unidentified unidentified as to species species were eliminated from Birds were eliminated from calculations because because of the difficulty the calculations difficulty in distributdistributthem in a true true fashion fashion among among the identified identified birds. birds. ing them Table Visibility ratios ratios of important important breeding breeding ducks ducks Table 1. Visibility Valley, as determined determined from from in the the San Luis Luis Valley, air-ground comparison comparison studies, 1964-67. air-ground studies, 1964-67. Species Species Average 1964 1965 1966 1967 Average Mallard Mallard Pintail Pintail Gadwall Blue-winged or Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal Teal Cinnamon Green-winged Teal Teal Green-winged Shoveler Shoveler Redhead Redhead 0.34 0,34 0.04 0.25 0.35 0.19 0. 19 0.18 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.03 0. 03 0.09 0.13 0.34 _____!} 11 0.35 0.35 0.05 --0.25 0.33 0.11 0.50 0.10 0.36 0.36 0.31 0.19 0,40 0.40 0.32 0.36 0.36 0.21 0,21 0.24 0.15 0.11~ o.11'?J 0.19 0.25 0. 25 YA ratio computed for green-winged teal for green-winged teal in YA ratio was not computed because none were observed from from the air on the 1966 because were observed the air-ground comparison transects. air-ground comparison transects. YAverage of three three year yearss only. These visibility visibility ratios ratios tell tell what proportion These proportion or perpercentage breeding pairs identified identified to species species from centage breeding pairs from the air make make up of the total total number actually present. For air number actually present. For example, it means means that that the air air crew crew identified, identified, as example, mallards, mallards that that were mallards, 34% of the mallards were actually actually present during the 1964 coverage air-ground present during coverage of the air-ground comparison transects. transects. Thus, these these ratios apcomparison Thus, ratios can be applied as as correction correction factors factors to the the regular regular survey survey data plied data obtain an estimate estimate of the size size of the breeding breeding poputo obtain lation of an area area on a species-by-species species-by-species basis. lation basis. Data in Table indicate a wide variation variation in visiData Table 11 indicate visibility ratios ratios among species. Average Average ratios ratios ranged bility among the species. ranged from a high of 0.36 for for the mallard mallard to a low of 0.11 from for the green-winged green-winged teal teal for for the four years years of study. for the four study. These differences differences indicate that some some species species were were These indicate that easier to see see and identify identify than than others others because easier because of variations in size, size, coloration, coloration, or or habits habits of the birds. birds. variations For example, example, these these data data suggest suggest that that green-winged green-winged For teal were were about three three times times more more difficult see and teal difficult to see identify than Green-winged teal are smaller smaller identify than mallards. mallards. Green-winged teal are and less less colorful colorful than mallards. In the the San Luis Luis than mallards. Valley, the mallard mallard occupies the larger larger open water Valley, occupies the water habitat, such flooded meadows, meadows, with greater greater frehabitat, such as flooded frequency than than the teal teal which seems to prefer prefer the smaller smaller quency which seems heavily covered covered water water areas, areas, such such as ditches ditches andpotand potheavily holes. three of these these factors factors contribute contribute to the holes. All three large difference in visibility visibility rates rates between between these large difference these two species. species. the difference difference between between two species species in The greater greater the regard to size, size, coloration, coloration, and habits, more didiregard habits, the more versity we can expect between their visibility visibility ratios, ratios, versity can expect between their such as the the example example given given above. Conversely, Conversely, simi~ simy such larity between between two species species with respect thee" larity respect to the factors should should yield approximately equal equal visibility factors yield approximately visibility ratios. Perhaps Perhaps the gadwall would be a ratios. the pintail pintail and gadwall good example example of a comparison comparison of two species this good species in this category . Average ratios for species were were category. Average ratios for these these two species for thefouryearsof the four years of study. study. 0.21 and 0.24 respectively, respectively, for ViSibility ratios varied greatly greatly among among the four Visibility ratios varied four years for for all all species species except except tthe mallard. These These varivariyears he mallard. ations can probably be attributed attributed to changes changes inhabitat in habitat ations can probably conditions and aerial aerial observers conditions observers throughout throughout the the 196467 period study. The aerial aerial observer observer crew crew concon67 period of study. sisted of the same same individuals sisted individuals in 1964 and 1965, but habitat conditions conditions were consistent between habitat were not consistent between the years. Scarcity Scarcity of water water in the San Luis Valley in two years. Luis Valley in 1964 created created quite different different habitat conditions and habitat conditions counting conditions conditions than than in the more more favorable favorable water water counting year of 1965. 1965. This This situation situation was reversed year r eversed in 1966 and Habitat conditions conditions were were similar these two similar iinn these 1967. Habitat years, but the aerial aerial observer observer crew crew was somewhat years, but the was somewhat different. One aerial aerial observer observer in 1967 had not been been a different. member of the crew crew during during any of the the three three previous member previous years. It was apparent apparent from from looking looking at the field data years. the field data that this this iindividual see and identify identify teal teal better that ndividu~l could see better than any of the other other observers. observers. This situation rerethan This situation sulted in the high visibility visibility ratios ratios for for the various sulted the various species of teal teal in 1967 as compared compared to the other other species years (Table 1) 1).. years 1J Visibility ratios ratios for for the mallard mallard remained relaVisibility remained relatively stable stable during during the four-year four-year period period of study. study. tively Apparently the visibility of this this species species was least least afApparently the visibility fected by changes aerial observers than than fected changes in habitat habitat and aer ial observers the other other species, species, probably probably because its size, size, colorcolorbecause of its ation, habits, abundance in the Valley. ation, habits, and abundance the San Luis Luis Valley. Fig. 2. Artesian Artesian well Luis Valley Valley Fig. well pond; typical typical San Luis habitat. duck habitat. �Fig. Fig. 3. A pair pair of mallards; mallards; large, large, colorful, colorful, usually usually on open water water areas areas and relatively relatively easy easy to see see from from the the air. air. Fig. Fig. 4. A pair pair of green-winged green-winged teal; teal; small, small, less less colorful colorful than than mallards, mallards, usually usually in heavy heavy cover cover and difficult difficult to see see from from the the air. air. CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS Air-ground Air-ground comparison comparison studies studies have made made it pospossible sible to further further refine refine our our duck breeding breeding population population estimates estimates and thus thus improve improve our our basis basis for for establishing establishing particular particular hunting hunting seasons seasons and regulations. regulations. However, However, airground comparison air-ground comparison work work must must be conducted conducted annually nually in each each major major breeding breeding area area because becaus8 visibility visibility .rates rates can can vary vary from from year year to year year accordingto according to certain certain factors. factors. Annual changes changes in habitat habitat and aerial aerial observobservers ers seem seem to contribute contribute particularly particularly to this this variation. variation. Differences in water water levels levels and stages stages of development development Differences vegetation are are not consistent consistent from from year year to year year for for of vegetation a given given habitat habitat type, type, and as a result, result, ducks ducks may may not be equally equally conspicuous conspicuous to the the aerial aerial observers observers from from one year year to the the next. next. Aerial Aerial observers observers are are not equal equal in their their ability ability to detect detect and recognize recognize ducks ducks from from the the air; air; consequently, consequently, changing changing one or or both both members members of the the aerial aerial survey survey crew crew can can introduce introduce considerable considerable bias bias in the the data. data. Some species sJ)ecies of ducks ducks are are obviously obviously more more easily easily seen seen and identified identified than than others others because because of size, size, coloration, coloration, or or habits. habits. This This situation situation is is furfurther ther complicated complicated by annual annual changes changes in habitat habitat and aerial Thus, aerial observers. observers. Thus, the the practice practice of applying applying a constant constant visibility visibility correction correction to breeding breeding areas areas year year after after year year is is not recommended. recommended. Also, Also, the the wide wide variavariations tions in visibility visibility ratios ratios among among years years suggest suggest that that average average annual annual ratios ratios cannot cannot reliably reliably be used used to correct correct aerial aerial data. data. New visibility visibility ratios ratios must must be calculated calculated each each year, year, at at least least until until we know what ratios ratios can be applied applied to given given sets sets of conditions. conditions. Richard M. Hopper Hopper Richard Assistant Assistant Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, August, 1967 \. �Outdoor Facts Out PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO GAME, PARKS DEPT. DEPT. COLORADO GAME, FISH and PARKS Game G an'le IInformation nformation Leaflet Leaflet 4tJ Number Number GESTATION PERIODS, , LITTER LITTER SIZES, GE T TIO - PERIODS SIZES, AND BREEDING HABITS OF OF COLORADO COLORADO FURBEARERS FURBEARERS AND BREEDING HABITS Furbearing mammals, mammals, that is, is, mammals mammals having a Furbearing commercially valuable valuable pelt of fur rather rather than hair, commercially hair, are generally generally confined ttoo the Orders Orders Rodentia Rodentia and are Carnivora. Among the rodents, rodents, only the beaver beaver and Carnivora. are recognized recognized as commercially commercially valuable the muskrat muskrat are valuable in Colorado; Colorado; among the carnivores carnivores, a wide variety variety of species have fur of of commercial commercial value. It is to be species expected, of course, course, that expected, that a group of mammals mammals made up of such diverse diverse types types will exhibit differexhibit markedly markedly differreproductive characteristics. characteristics. management ent reproductive In the management important furbearers, furbearers, a knowledge of thesE of our important characteristics essential in predicting predicting the 1·ate rate of c-haracteristics is essential therefore the expected rate of annual increase, increase, and therefore expected rate harvest, these populations. populations. harvest, of these Following listing of approximate approximate gestation gestation Following is a listing periods, average average litter litter sizes, general information information periods, sizes, and general habits of Colorado's Colorado's furbearers: furbearers: on breeding breeding habits ORDER RODE RODENTIA ORDER TIA Family Cast Castoridae Family oridae Beaver - Castor Castor canadensis canadensis Beaver Gestation period period not precisely precisely known, 100 Gestation known, but about 100 Average litter litter size size 33-44 above 8,000 feet elevaelevadays. Average tion, 44-55 below 8,000 feet. General General information: information: The beaver, unlike unlike most most rodents, rodents, has but one litter litter per per beaver, year. dates is about June 1. 1. The year. The peak in birth birth dates young are are weaned in about 40 daJs days,, stay stay with the young parents until years old, and are are mature mature at three three parents until two years years years of age. Family Muridae Family Muridae Muskrat - Ondatra zibethica Muskrat Ondatra zibethica Gestation period Average litter litter size size Gestation period about 30 days. Average 6-8. General General information: Muskrats bear bear more 6-8. information: Muskrats more than litter per per year; one litter year; up to five litters litters annually, depending on on climate. climate. Young remain with parents Young do not remain parents after weaning, mature mature in about 33-44 months. months. after 62 62 �CARNIVORA ORDER CARNIVORA Family Mustelidae Mustelidae Family Mustela vison Mink - Mustela Gestation period days. Average Average litter litter size size 5-6. Gestation period 45-60 days. 5- 6. General information: information: One One litter litter per per year year is the rule. rule. General Young are are weaned at five weeks of of age, leave den at Young mature at one year year of age. about 6-8 6- 8 weeks, mature Family Mustelidae Family Mustelidae Marten - Martes Martes a.mericana americana Marten Gestation period 255255-285 after mating. Average Average Gestation period 285 days after litter size size 4-6. General General information information: : The marten litter marten is mustelids in which delayed im im-one of the group of mustelids plantation of the embryos embryos takes takes place. plantation place. The female mates again immediately immediately after after the birth litter, mates birth of a litter, fertilized until much later. later. The but the egg is not fertilized precise gestation gestation period precise period after after implantation implantation is not known, but young are are born born 255-285 days after after mating. known, Young are six weeks, leave Young are weaned in six leave den at about three months, and mature mature at one year year of age. three Family Mustelidae Family Mustelidae Weasel Mustela nivalis, nivalis, M. rixosa rixosa, , M. frenata frenata Weasel - Mustela ------- --Gestation period after mating; delayed Gestation period 220-337 days after implantation as in the marten. marten. Average Average litter litter size size implantation 4-6. General information: information: Y0tmg Young are are weaned in about 4- 6. General five weeks, leave den at about 7-8 weeks of age. five Females mature mature during during first first summer, summer, but males males do do Females not mature one year year of age. mature until one Family Mustelidae Fam"ly Mustelidae Striped Skunk Skunk - Mephitis Mephitis mephitis mephitis Striped Gestation period 55 days. Average Average litter litter size size 6-8, 6-8. Gestation period 55 General information: information: One One litter litter per year, born in General per year, spring. Young Young are 6-77 weeks of age, spring. are weaned at about 6remain with female female until remain until 3-4 months of age, and mature at one year. year. mature Family Mustelidae Family Mustelidae Badger - Taxidea Taxidea taxus taxus Badger Gestation 183-365 days after Gestation period period 183~365 after mating; delayed implantation as in the marten marten and weasel. weasel. Average implantation Average litter size 33-4. General information: information: Young Young are are litter size 4. General weaned at six weeks, leave parents weeks, leave parents at about three three mature at one year year of age. months, and mature �Family Procyonidae Procyonidae Family Raccoon - Procyon Procyon lotor lotor Gestation period 65 days. Average litter size 3-6. Gestation period 65 litter size General information: information: One One litter litter per per year, General year, but may be born anytime from spring spring to fall. Young born Young are are weaned at two months, remain remain with female for a full year year at which time are mature. mature. time they are Family Family Procyonidae Procyonidae Ring-tailed Cat - Bassariscus astutus Ring-tailed Bassariscus astutus Gestation period period unknown. size 3-4 Gestation unknown. Average litter litter size One litter litter per year, born inMay General information: information: One per year, or June. Young Young are are weaned at four months and are are mature one year mature at one year of age. Family Felidae Family Felidae Lynx rufus Bobcat - Lynx ---- Gestation period 63 days. Average Gestation period 63 Average litter litter size size 2-4. General information: One litter litter per per year, General information: year, born in April or May. May. Young Young are April are weaned at two months, reremain with the parents first year year of life, parents during during the first mature during the second year. year. and mature Family Canidae Family Red Fox - Vulpes fulva ------ period 55 55 days. Average Average litter size 3-4. Gestation period litter size General information: information: One One litter litter per year, born in General per year, April. Young Young are are weaned at six April. six weeks, leave the parents at mature at one one year parents at 4-5 months of age, and mature year of age. of REFERENCES REFERENCES Burton, Maurice. Maurice. 1962. 1962. Systematic Systematic dictionary Burton, dictionary of mammals of the world. Thomas Y. Crowell Co., mammals New York. 307 307 pp., illus. illus. New Palmer, E. Laurence. 1957. Palmer's Palmer, Laurence. 1957. Palmer's fieldbook of mammals. E. P. Dutton & 321 pp., mammals. & Co., New ew York. 321 illus. illus. William H. H. Rutherford Rutherford Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, 1967 1967 -:-. . .:. ...~ , ___ w.. �Outdoor Facts t 00 F PUBLISHED BY THE- CO COLORADO PUBLISHED BY TH ORADO DEPARTMENTToF OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTME ATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF GAME.. FISH FISH ANO AND PARKS PARKS 0IVISIO OF GAME Number Number 63 Game In Information Leaflet Game f ormation Leaflet A DEVICE DEVICE FOR FOR OPENING OPENING DEER AND AND ELK 11 A DEJER ELK JAWS JAWS 1/ Age determination determination of of deer deer and elk by tooth tooth, reAge replacement and wear wear (Severinghaus, 1949; 1949; Robinette placement aI., 1957; 1957; Quimby Quimby and Gaab, 1957), 1957), or by annuli et al., a.tllluli in first incisor (Low and Cowan, Cowan, the cementum of the first incisor (Low 1963; Gilbert, Gilbert, 1966), 1966), is frequently frequently an important part 1963; important part of deer deer and elk checking station station operations operations in Coloof Difficulties sometimes sometimes encountered rado. Difficulties encountered in opening kills, especially the jaws of of deer and elk Id.Us, especially those frozen frozen or several several days old, are are easily easily overcome overcome by the dedescribed herein. herein. The need for a jaw-opening vice described jaw-opening recognized by 'Hunter (1942) (1942) who who used an tool was recognized lifter to open deer deer jaws. automobile valve lifter constructed of of a 22-inch length of The device is constructed one-half inch steel steel rod bent at each end to form hanone-half dles, and a three-eights thick steel steel blade welded dles, three-eights inch thick welded "i"1 ~ BLADE BLADE TAPERED TAPEFCEO ~ TO A pmNT TO A emNT BLADE BLADE to the center Dimensions of the center of the rod (Fig. 1). Dimensions whether it it is to be used for blade vary depending on whether deer or elk. The blade is inserted inserted into the diastema diastema deer animal' (Fig. 2) 2) and the device rotated rotated in order order of the animal force open the jaws (Fig. 3). to force When the jaws have been forced forced open the cheek can When pre-molars be sliced sliced with a knife exposing the lower lower premolars and molars molars (Fig. 3) replace3) to permit permit aging by tooth replaceincisor can be easily easily extracted extracted ment and wear; wear; or, an incisor sectioning and aging by the annuli, annuli. for sectioning When working with frozen When frozen game heads the blade of the jaw-opening jaw-opening device can be driven driven into the diastema with a hammer. diastema hammer. ..... - - ,-t-....., _4,_ _ _ _ _ fr THICK ROUNDED ROUNDED EDGES EDGES rr a:: a: w><: UJ,£ w..J UI...J ow THICK 2f DEER 2{ DEER 3·f ELI( ELl( 3f r 13"" 13 STEEL ROD f STEEL ROD 1. Sketch of jaw opener showing dimensions dimensions used used for deer deer and for elk. Fig. 1, 11Contribution Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. contribution from Federal l1 �Fig. 2. 2. Jaw opener showing the blade inserted inserted into the ctiastema diastema of an elk. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Fig, Fig. 3. Jaw opener is is rotated rotated to force force open the jaws of of the elk. The cheek has been sliced sliced to expose the lower jaw teeth teeth so age determination determination can be made by tooth replacement replacement and and wear. Gilbert, tailed deer Gilbert, F. F. 1966. 1966. Aging Aging whitewhite-tailed deer by annuli in the cementum of the the first first incisor. incisor. J. Wildl. 30(1):200-202. Mgmt. 30(1):200-202. Quimby, Quimby, D. D. C., and JJ.. E. Gaab. Gaab. 1957. 1957. Mandibular dentition as an age indicator indicator in Rocky Rocky Mountain Mountain elk. J. Wildl. 451. Wild!. Mgmt, Mgmt. 21(4):43521(4):435-451. Gilbert N. N. 1942. 1942. Physical Physical characteristics characteristics of Hunter, Gilbert Colorado mule deer deer in relation relation to their their ages. Colorado Grune Game and and Fish Fish Dept. Denver. 38 38 pp. W. L., G. G. Rogers, Rogers, and JJ.. S. S. Gashwiler. Gashwiler. 1957. 1957. Robinette, W. Notes on tooth development and wear for Rocky Rocky 153. Mountain Mountain mule deer, deer. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 21(2):13421(2):134-153. Low. Low. W. W. A., and I. 1. McT Cowan. Cowan. 1963. 1963. Age Age determinadeterminaof deer deer by annular annular structure structure of of dental cemencemention of tum. J. Wild!. 477. Wild!. Mgmt. 27(3):46627(3):466-477. Severinghaus, Severinghaus, C. C. W. W. 1949. 1949. Tooth development and and wear as criteria tailed deer. criteria of age in whitewhite-tailed deer. J. Wild!. Wild!. Mgmt. 13(2):195-216. 13(2):195-216. Kufeld Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher Researcher Candidate December, December, 1967 1967 �Outdoor Facts 0 PUBLISHED THE ED BY TH· COLORADO GAME, FISH and DEPT. SO P d PARKS COLOR 00 G IS Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 64 umber 64 TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING MEASURING SHRUB CROWN TECHNIQUES FOR SHRUB CROWN IINTERCEPT TERCEPT WHEN EMPLOYING G THE THE LINE INTERCEPT METHOD METHOD WHEN EMPLOY! LI E INTERCEPT OF S SAMPLING VEGETATION 1.1 OF AMPLI G RANGE RA GE VEGETATIO JJ sampling range vegeThe line intercept intercept method of sampling tation (Canfield, 1950) 1950) has been used in studying plant tation communities at big game exclosures exclosures in Colorado. commwtities (1950:4) explained the meaning of crown Canfield (1950:4) spread of of shrubs shrubs and the justification spread justification and method for taking shrub crown measurements. Nevertheless, in taking shrub measurements. Nevertheless, course of of field field application application of techniques the course techniques it was found that further further refinement refinement was needed for measurfound measur- Rod+ Rod" w,,,J' Transect Transect WlreJC A • VIEW FROM ABOVE ABOVE VIEW I 1, I I Figure 1 portrays procedure that that was adopted Figure portrays the procedure for measuring plants that lack compact for measuring browse browse plants compact growth form. A rule detailed in Figure important form. rule not detailed Figure 1, but important measuring shrubs, outer boundaries boundaries of in measuring shrubs, is that the outer are taken to be the outermost outermost points of inthe crown are terception of of any portion portion of the shrub excepting curterception shrub excepting current twig and leaf growth. Furthermore, Furthermore, dead portions portions rent measurements. Totally of live crowns are are included in measurements. dead plants plants are are not measured measured but are are accounted for separate tally tally (Baker (Baker, 1961 1961:10). in a separate :10). Also, in order number of measuremeasureorder to reduce reduce the number ments in dense shrub stands, the following rule rule is ments shrub stands, adhered several plants of the same species adhered to: Where several same species form seemingly closed, intermingled canopy, and form a seemingly closed, intermingled the distances distances between between plant crowns crowns are are no greater greater largest interspace interspace of of any anyone plants than the largest one of the plants is taken to include all involved, one measurement measurement is crowns intercepted. intercepted. crowns PROFILE PROFILE I plants of shrubby species species having large large interspaces interspaces ing plants and indefinable crowns. crowns. ;,>, ', _., • I I I I I C D Fig. I. 1. P Procedure measuring shrub Fig, rocedure for measuring shrub crown interinterceptinin the line interception interception range study method. Discept measurement taken rather CD tance AB AB is the measurement rather than CD which is subject subject to variable variable interpretation interpretation by examexaminers. of this procedure procedure seems seems imperative imperative iners . The use of species of shrubs shrubs lacking completely completely compact with all species compact sharply definable crown perimeter perimeter growth form and sharply seen from above. as seen 11Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-101-R. contribution from Fig. 2. Typical browse vegetation Typical browse vegetation type where where line interception range are applied. interception range study techniques techniques are �LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Baker, Baker, B. D. D. 1961. 1961. A A directory directory of Colorado big game exclosures exclosures concerning program program history, history, study techniques, techniques, locations, locations, and other general general informainformation. Colo. Colo. Game Game and Fish Fish Dept, Dept. Spec. Spec. Rept., January, January, 1961. 1961. 51 51 pp., mimeo. Canfield, R. H. H. 1950. 1950. Sampling ranges ranges by the line interception 4, Southwestern terception method. Res. Rept. No. No.4, Forest Forest and Range Range Exp. Sta., Forest Forest Service, Service, U.S.D.A., D.S.D.A., Tucson, Arizona. 28 28 pp. B. D. Baker Baker Assistant Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher January, January, 1968 1968 �Outdoor Facts t I d~ . I'· I' PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUB ISHEO BY COLORADO GAME, PARKS DEPT. D PT COLOR 00 G M , FISH s and PARt<S L:!' Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 65 Number 65 A MODIFIED GALLINACEOUS GUZZLER FOR SCALED SCALED QUAIL!/ QUAIL!! A MODIFIED GALLINACEOUS GUZZLER FOR Various designs have been used in the construction construction Various designs of gallinaceous gallinaceous guzzlers, guzzlers, well known known self-filling self-filling watering devices devices for upland game birds. birds. One One of the watering most practical practical designs designs was by U. S. S. Forest Service most Forest Service personnel of the Carrizo Carrizo District District in southeastern southeastern personnel guzzler, a dual-purpose dual-purpose model, was Colorado. This guzzler, built for use by scaled scaled quail (Callipepla (Callipepla squarnata). squamata). built storage tank provided provided a continual water water supply, The storage rainwater-collecting over and the rainwatercollecting apron, constructed constructed over the tank, provided provided an attractive attractive resting resting canopy. Both cover and water water were were consistently consistently used. cover approximate approximate 7 inches. inches. The barrel barrel must must be cleaned cleaned or burned asphalt paint inside inside and burned out and painted with asphalt retard rust. sheet of metal metal serves serves as an rust. A sheet out to retard approach to the entrance entrance (Fig. 1). 1). Another piece piece of approach sheet metal, asphalt and sheet metal, cut to shape and coated with asphalt graveled on on the upper upper surface surface, is then inserted inserted into graveled the barrel barrel (Figs. 2 and 3). It is bolted to the lip foldserve as an entrance entrance platform back to serve platform for birds birds going into the structure. structure. A concrete concrete approach approach can be substituted for sheet sheet metal metal if desired. desired. stituted DRAIN The guzzler guzzler design design described here is a modificadescribed here modificaCarrizo District personnel tion of of that developed by Carrizo District personnel 1). It substitutes (Fig. 1). substitutes one or two 55-gallon barrels barrels storage tank installed for the 200- to 400-gallon 400- gallon storage installed by the Forest Service, and the rainwater rainwater catchment Forest Service catchment is reduced in size. size. These These modifications permit a signifreduced modifications permit icant cost reduction. reduction. icant W~;k---~CORRUGATED -----;AME GROUND ,-, : ;--F 1 E NeE STEEl. _ ....-~ TROUGI-l SH£ETlNG -.,....--=---=-...=:=::::--====. LEVEL PO S T SA RREl ! U SCALE o 0 3 FEET guzzler design. (Drawing by Fig. 2. Side view of guzzler design. {Drawing Warren D. Snyder. Snyder.)) Warren D. ORA IN TROUGM Fig. 1. 1. Small guzzler guzzler designed to provide economical economical resting cover and water water to quail and other other wildlife. wildlife. resting Snyder.) (Drawing by Warren Warren D. D. Snyder .) EtlTRANC E PLATE' 55-gallon Used 55gallon barrels barrels can be obtained for a few dollars from chemical and oil deale~s dealeJ;"sand other dollars from chemical and from other sources. Two Two or more more barrels barrels can be easily easily coupled sources. together to increase increase guzzler guzzler storage storage capacity. capacity. together o0 entrance into the barrel, The opening cut for enh·ance barrel, around around the lid at the edge of the rim, rim should be situated . so that the pipe connection between the situated barrels is toward the back and at the lowest possible barrels possible 2). That portion portion of the lid is folded out to point (Fig. 2). form a lip. The height of the entrance entrance opening should YContribution from Federal Federal Aid Projeet W-37-R. !!contribution Project W37-R. J FEET Fig. 3. Top view showing placement placement of an auxiliary auxiliary barrel increased water water storage storage capacity. barrel for increased capacity. (Drawing by Warren Warren D. D. Snyder.) collecting apron is constructed constructed above the The collecting storage tank so that down the corrustorage that rainwater rainwater runs runs down corrudrain trough, trough, sloped to drain drain into the gations into the drain �storage .tank:. .tank. A inches for both length storage A drop of 2 or 3 inches of the apron apron is adequate, adequate. One One inch of of rainrainand width of 8- by 1010-foot provides about 50 50 fall on the 8foot apron provides water. gallons of water. scaled quail coveys usually usually are are small small in numbe number, scaled r, the storage capacity capacity of the structure structure described described here storage here adequate. should be adequate. Warren D. Snyder Warren Researcher Wildlife Researcher August,, 1969 1969 August list of of materials materials and approximate approximate costs per A list costs per item are are given in Table L The total total cost, cost, including installation, is considerably average installation, considerably below the $225 average costt of the the larger larger Forest Forest Service Service structures. structures. Since cos Quantity Quantity Item ItelD Es timated tima ced Cos t t Single-barrel Design Singlebarrel Design 2 2 4 4 11 11 l1 11 7 ft. diameter ft. creosote fence posts -- 4 in. in . diameter ft. 2 in. in. x 4 in. in. rough lumber 12 ft. 8 ft. ft. 2 in, in. x 4 in. in. rough lumber 10 ft. ft. x 26 in. 10 ia. corrugated steel sheeting accessories -- 4 ~n. in. galvanized galvanized Gutter, screen and accessories in. x 36 in. in. 14 ga. steel sheeting sheeting 24 in. in. x 36 in. 18 ~n. in. 14 ga. steel sheeting 55 gal. gal. steel barrel (used) barrel (used) Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous: in. x 3/8 in., in.. x 1/4 in. in. Bolts, 6 in. in., l1 in common Nails, roofing roofing and 16 penny penny COT!mlOn Asphalt paint Asphalt paint and tar tar for tank and steel Total materials materials $ 2.50 1.60 3.00 10.00 10 . 00 5.00 4.00 33.00 . 00 6.00 Labor: $40.00 $40 . 00 Mileage: 20 hrs.@ hrs. @ $2.00 per hour at.125 @ $0.08 per mile Variable, averaged ac . 125 mi. mi.@ Total materials, labor and mileage mileage 1.50 1.00 1.00 $38.60 $38 . 60,I $10.00 $ 88.60 88.60 Two-barrel Design Design Supplemental Supplemental IItems Two-barrel tems 1 l 55-gallon barrel (used) (used) 55-gallon Pipe and elbows Cleaning chemicals Cleaning chemicals $ 6.00 3.00 1.00 @ $2.00 per hour Labor: 4 hrs. hrs.@ Total supplemental supplemental items $18.00 $Ts.'15'o Total cost for two-barrel two - barrel guzzler guzzler design $106.60 $106.60 8.00 1. A A list list of materials approximate expenditures expenditures for modified guzzler guzzler cons construction. Table 1. materials and approximate truction. �Outdoor Facts Outdoor ., PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED i DEPARTMENT oOFFNATURALRESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENT , ,::> ~ ,' I ' DIVISION OF GAME GAME, , FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION Number 66 Number66 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet SURVIVAL OF OF TRANSPLANTED TRANSPLANTED CHOLLA SURVIVAL CHOLLA CACTI!} Cholla cactus, Opuntia arborescens arborescens (Engelm.), Cholla cactus, Opuntia (Engelm.), commo'1ly referred referred staghorn, walkingstick comm0'1ly to as staghorn, walkingstick cholla, shrub tree cactus, cactus, occurs occurs in the prairie cholla, shrub or or tree prairie short-grass region southeastern Colorado. Colorado. Pockets Pockets short-grass region in southeastern cholla (pronounced (pronounced choy-ya) occur in of cholla choy-ya) cactus cactus also also occur many pinon-juniper pinon-juniper plant communities. These spiny many plant communities. These spiny plants, which may grow up to 6 feet feet in height height and plants, width, furnish excellent natural natural cover cover for for scaled scaled width, furnish excellent quaiL In addition, addition, the commonly utilized utilized as quail. the fruit fruit is commonly scaled quail quail and other other birds. birds. food by scaled During 1960, cholla cholla transplants transplants included included 20 young During cacti and 5 stem stem cuttings the spring, spring, 25 young cacti cacti cacti cuttings in the the summer, summer, and 25 young cacti cacti and 6 stem stem cutcutin the tings in the fall, all in a 3-acre 3-acre plot Almagre tings fall, all plot in Almagre the Apishapa Apishapa Management Management Area Area in southsouthCanyon in the east Colorado. Colorado, Objectives Objectives were were to improve improve scaled east scaled quail habitat, habitat, determine determine survival by season, season, and quail survival growth rate rate by years. years, Plant Plant survival survival and growth growth were were growth last checked checked on June June 20, 1967, approximately approximately 7 years years last after planting, after planting. Native game species include scaled scaled quail quail (CalliNative game species include (Callipepla squamata), cottontail cottontail rabbits rabbits (Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus audupepla squamata), audubonii), and antelope antelope (Antilocapra (Antilocapra americana). bonii), americana). All are are considered common common in the the region. considered region. FINDINGS FINDINGS Table 1 lists lists survival survival percentages for cholla cholla cacti Table percentages for cacti transplanted in 1960 in the the experimental experimental plot,. ExcelExceltransplanted lent percent) was recorded recorded for for lent survival survival (90 to 100 percent) entire plants plants transplanted transplanted with a spadeful spadeful of dirt dirt to entire protect the root root system system (Fig. (Fig. 1). It made little protect made very very little Table 1. Survival Survival of cholla cholla cacti, Almagre Canyon, Canyon, Table cacti, Almagre Las Animas Animas County. County, Las Da te c'.lnd and Pe Period O,u,e riod Planted Planted Number Nulilber Planted Plilnt.cd Size She (in.). ) (in Number Numbe.r Alive Alive 6/20/67 6/20/67 Average Ave["age Size She (in. . ) (in Survival Survlv.tl (,.) (?;) TrcJnsplanted 'l"r.011sp l.an ced sStock coc:k Site selection and development development were were carried carried out in Site selection cooperation Clifford A. Moser, Moser, Alfred Alfred J. J. Heins Heins cooperation with with Clifford rick, former former habitat development crew and Don Par Parrick, habitat development crew members for the Southeast Southeast Region. Region. members for 4/19/60 (spring) (spring) 4/19/60 20 10-12 L0 - 12 18 18 20-22 20-22 90 77/22/60 /22/60 ((summer) ,unm,er) 25 25 10-12 l0 - 12 25 20-22 20-22 100 10/22/60 (fall) L0/22/60 (fall) 25 25 10-12 10-12 23 20-22 20.22 92 4/19/60 4/ l 9/60 ((spring) opring) 5 88-10 - 10 60 10/22/60 10/22/60 ((fall) fa11 ) 6 88-10 - 10 67 67 Stem Cuttings Cuttings Stem SITE DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION plot is in Las Las Animas The experimental experimental plot Animas County, R61W, 6 P.M. P.M. It is approximately approximately 25 Sec. 19, T27S, R61W, airline miles miles due east east of Walsenburg, Walsenburg, at an elevation elevation airline approximately 5,300 feet. of approximately feet. Soils are are relatively heavy, consisting consisting of clays clays for for Soils relatively heavy, most part. part. Vegetation Vegetation is characteristic characteristic shortthe most shortgrass disclimax disclimax with with pockets pockets of cholla cholla cacti cacti varying varying grass from sparse sparse to dense. dense. Juniper-covered benches and from Juniper-covered benches canyon rims rims are south and east east of the canyon are found to the south site, The plot plot has has been badly overused overused by cattle cattle conconsite. been badly centrating at a nearby water hole and salting salting station. station. centrating nearby waterhole site is in a low precipitation precipitation belt. belt. The 10-year 10-year The site moisture average, average, 1951 1951 through Walsenburg moisture through 1960 for for Walsenburg (elevation 6,200 feet) Junta (elevation (elevation feet) and La Junta (elevation 4,200 4,200 feet), indicates that area receives receives an annual annual fe et) , indicates that the area precipitation average average of 12 12 to 13 13 inches. inches, precipitation .!IContribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-37-R .Ycontribution W-37-R ,\'" '"'1 ,~ •.... , ), Fig. 1. A cholla cholla cactus those transplanted transplanted Fig. cactus similar similar to those in 1960 with spadeful spadeful of dirt. dirt. Most plants were were 10 to Most plants inches in height height at time time of planting. (Photo by 12 inches planting. (Photo Donald M. Hoffman) Donald �r1iffc.~c)1"'lnt"l �Facts Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO PUBLISHED THE CO L ORA D O DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPART MENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF OF GAME GAME,, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION Number 66 Number66 Game Information Leaflet Game Information Leaflet SURVIVAL OF OF TRANSPLANTED CHOLLA CACTI.!) CACTI!} SURVIVAL T R ANSPLANTE D CHOLLA Cholla cactus, cactus, Opuntia Opuntia arborescens arborescens (Engelm.), , Challa (Engelm.) commC''1ly referred staghorn, walkingstick walkingstick comm0'1ly referred to as staghorn, cholla, shrub shrub or or tree tree cactus, prairie cholla, cactus , occurs occurs in the prairie short- grass grass region region in southeastern southeastern Colorado. Colorado. Pockets Pockets shortcholla (pronounced (pronounced choy-ya) cactus also occur in of cholla choy- ya) cactus also occur pinon-juniper plant plant communities. communities. These These spiny spiny many pinon-juniper plants, which may grow up to 6 feet feet in height height and plants, natural cover cover for scaled width, furnish furnish excellent excellent natural for scaled quail. In addition, addition, the fruit fruit is commonly utilized utilized as quail. is commonly scaled quail quail and other birds. food by scaled other birds. During 1960, cholla cholla transplants transplants included included 20 young During cacti and 5 stem stem cuttings cuttings in the spring, cacti spring, 25 young cacti cacti 25 young cacti cacti and 6 stem stem cutcutin the the summer, summer, and 25 tings fall, all all in a 3-acre 3-acre plot tings in the fall, plot in Almagre Almagre Management Area southCanyon in the Apishapa Apishapa Management Ar ea in southeastt Colorado, Colorado. Objectives Objectives were were to improve improve scaled scaled eas quail habitat, determine survival by season, quail habitat, determine survival season, and growth rate rate by years. years. Plant Plant survival survival and growth growth were were growth last checked checked on June years last June 20, 1967, approximately approXimately 7 years after planting. after planting. Site selection selection and development development were were carried carried out in Site cooperation with Clifford Clifford A. Moser, Moser, Alfred cooperation Alfred J. Heins Heins Parrick, former former habitat habitat development development crew and Don Parrick, crew members Southeast Region Region.. members for for the Southeast Native game species species include include scaled scaled quail quail (Calli(CalliNative game pepla cottontail rabbits rabbits (Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus auduaudupepla squamata), squamata), cottontail bonii), and antelope (Antilocapra americana) americana). . All are are bonii), antelope {Antilocapra considered common common in the region. region. considered FINDINGS FINDINGS Table 1 lists lists survival for cholla cholla cacti Table survival percentages percentages for cacti transplanted in 1960 in the experimental experimental plot,. Exceltransplanted Excellent survival (90 recorded for for lent survival (90 to 100 percent) percent) was recorded entire plants transplanted with a spadeful spadeful of dirt dirt to entire plants transplanted protect the root system (Fig. 1). It made made very protect the root system (Fig. very little little Table 1. Survival Survival of cholla cacti, Almagre Almagre Canyon, Table cholla cacti, Las Animas Animas County. Las Date a nd Pe Perr lQC! iod Da ce ;11\d: Planted Pl~n t etl Number r Numbe Planted r 1,nc o<1 Size S h i! (in.. ) (in Number Number Average AVC't :lgc Alive A Liv i::: SSize iz. e (in. (in.)) 6/20/67 6/20/fil Survival Sur v i v al (%) ("t) Transplanted Stock TC' On lp lan c~d Stock 4/19/60 (spring) 4119/60 (op r uis) 20 10-12 10-1 2 18 18 20-22 20- 2. 990 0 7/22/60 7 / 22/ 60 ((summer) ,u....,, ) 25 10-12 1012 25 20-22 202. 100 10/22/60 ((fall) 10122/60 [4ll ) 25 25 10-12 1012 23 2l 20-22 22 20- n92 Cuttings Stem Ci.,.tt ings 4/[9/60 4/19/60 ((spring) sp r i.ng) 10/22/60 10/22 /60 ((fall) fall ) 6 8-10 8-10 60 oO 8-10 SlO 67 DESCRIPTION SITE DESCRIPTION experimental plot plot is is in Las Las Animas The experimental Animas County, R61W, 6 P P.M. approximately 25 25 Sec. 19, T27S, R61W .M. It is approximately airline miles due east east of Walsenburg, Walsenburg, at an elevation airline miles elevation approximately 5,300 feet. feet. of approximately Soils are are relatively relatively heavy, heavy, consisting consisting of clays clays for Soils for most part. Vegetation is characteristic characteristic shortthe most part. Vegetation shortgrass disclimax disclimax with pockets pockets of cholla varying grass cholla cacti cacti varying from sparse dense. JuniperJuniper-covered from sparse to dense. covered benches benches and canyon rims rims are are found to the south south and east canyon east of the site. has been been badly overused by cattle site, The plot plot has badly overused cattle concentrating at a nearby station. centrating nearby waterhole waterhole and salting salting station. site is in a low precipitation precipitation belt. belt. The 1010-year The site year moisture average, 1951 1951 through through 1960 for for Walsenburg Walsenburg moisture average, (elevation 6,200 fe feet) La Junta (elevation et ) and La Junta (elevation (elevation 4,200 feet), indicates indicates that that the area area receives receives an annual annual feet), precipitation average average of 12 12 to 13 13 inches. inches. precipitation .YContribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-37-R W-37-R .!!contribution Fig. cholla cactus those transplanted Fig. 1. A cholla cactus similar similar to those transplanted 1960 with spadeful of dirt. dirt. Most plants were were 10 to in 1960 with spadeful Most plants 12 inches inches in height height at time time of planting. (Photo by 12 planting. {Photo Donald M. Hoffman) �difference difference in either either survival survival or or growth growth rate rate whether whether the plants plants were were transplanted transplanted during during the spring, spring, sumsummer, mer, or or fall. falL The plants plants have approximately approximately doubled, doubled, both year study both in height height and width during during the 77-year study period period (Fig. (Fig. 2). Fig. 3. A cholla cholla cactus cactus plant plant started started from from a stem stem cutcutting ting in 1960. Most Most of these these plants plants were were only 88 to 10 10 inches by Donald M. Hoffman) inches in height height in 1967. (Photo (PhotobyDonaldM. Table of Table 2 lists lists advantages advantages and disadvantages disadvantages using ove scaled using cholla chona cacti cacti plantings plantings to impr improve scaled quail habitat. habitat. Table Table 2. Advantages Advantages and disadvantages disadvantages of using using cholla chona cacti cacti to improve improve scaled scaled quail habitat. habitat. Disadvantages Disadvantages Advantages Con Can use use native: native stock stock Grows \'1.:!'}1 very sslo,,,ly Gi-ows \owly No No fC!!nc.ing fencing required required Spiny tnnts 4'l'C co Spiny p plants are difficult difficult to band le handle No requiri!d No i..rrig~tlon irrigation required Bigh High survival survival rau rate Fig. Fig. 2. A cholla chona cactus cactus transplanted transplanted in 1960 as a plant plant 10 10 to 12 12 inches inches in height. height. Plant Plant had approximately approximately doubled doubled in height height and width width in 7 years, years, and provided provided limited limited cover cover for scaled scaled quail. quaiL (Photo (Photo by Donald M. Hoffman) Develops into into excel excellent cover and Develops lent cover adds to to oatuul natural food supply supply adds food Flowers r uit are Flowers and and ffruit are showy showy DISCUSSION DISCUSSION Poorer survival survival (60 to 67 percent) percent) was recorded recorded Poorer for stem time for transplanted transplanted stem cuttings cuttings (Fig. (Fig. 3). LongLong-time residents residents described described a method method of cutting cutting a portion portion of stem and stomping stomping it it into the the ground ground to start start the stem cholla chona cactus. cactus. Plants Plants started started using using stem stem cuttings cuttings buried buried beneath beneath the surface surface of the ground ground were were found to be of uniformly uniformly slow growth, growth, those those surviving surviving being being only 8 to 10 inches inches in height height 7 years years after after planting. planting. Based Based on the growth growth rate rate shown by cuttings cuttings and transplanted plants under under natural natural conditions, conditions, it it is transplanted plants probable probable that that cholla chona cactus cactus of a size size preferr preferreded by scaled scaled quail quail coveys coveys for for year-long year-long habitat habitat (36 (36 inches inches in height height and up) would require require in excess excess of 30 years. years. FFor or this this reason, reason, use use of larger larger transplanting transplanting stock stock should should be tried. tried. Larger Larger stock stock is, is, however, however, more more difficult difficult to handle. handle. A cattleproof fence cattle-proof fence (steel (steel post post and five-strand five-strand barbed barbed wire) wire) was erected erected around around the experimental experimental plot plot in 1960. However, However, cattle cattle pushed pushed under under a section section of the fence The fence at a washout washout shortly shortly thereafter. thereafter. entire entire west west section section of the fence fence was later later removed removed by a contractor contractor and never never replaced, replaced, so cattle cattle used used the plot plot as heavily heavily as before before fencing. fencing. Challa Chona cacti cacti were were transplanted transplanted into native native sod sod with a spadeful spadeful of dirt dirt to protect protect the root root systems, systems, or stem stem cuttings cuttings were were buried buried beneath beneath the surface surface of the ground. No supplemental supplemental water water or or fertilizer fertilizer was was used used ground. on any of the cacti cacti during during the study. study. variety of experimental experimental trees trees and shrubs shrubs other other A variety than than cholla chona cactus cactus were were also also planted planted in the plot during during �included Chinese Chinese elm elm (Ulmus 60 and 1961. They included l'umila L.), L.), wild plum (Prunus americana americana Marsh) Marsh), , !Jllmila plum (Prunus sand cherry (Prunus (Prunus besseyi besseyi Bailey), eastsand cherry Bailey), junipers, junipers, eastern and western, western, (Juniperus ~iniana ern (Juniperus ~iniana L., and J. scopulorum Sarg.), Sarg.), black black locust locust (Robiniapseudoacacia (Robiniapseudoacacia scopulorum L.), buUonbush (Cephalanthus (Cephalanthus occidentalis occidentalis L.), L.), white L ), buttonbush mulberry (Morus (Morus alba alba L L.), trilobata mulberry .), skunkbush skurikbush (Rhus trilobata NuU.), osage orange orange (Maclura (Maclura pomilera pomITera Nutt.). Nutt. ), and osage Nutt.). Extremely dry dry site site conditions, conditions, as well use Extremely well as heavy use by cattle, cattle, resulted resulted in near zero survival survival for for all all near zero species PXCPpt except cholla cactus, Chinese f-pecies cholla <'adus, Chines£> elm and junijunipers. , The Chinese Chinese elm elm and junipers received a pers junipers received small amount amount of water well overflow overflow for for two small water from from a well summers. summers. all the the plants plants tried, tried, native native cholla cholla cactus cactus alone alone Of all shows a definite definite possibility for eventual improvement shows possibility for eventual improvement scaled quail quail habitat habitat in this this very very dry dry and difficult difficult of scaled locality. The ssite considered to be more more or or less less locality. ite is considered characteristic of many many scaled quail ranges Colorado. characteristic scaled quail ranges in Colorado. Donald M. Hoffman Donald Hoffman Wildlife Researcher Wildlife RP.searcher August, 1969 August, �Outdoor Facts Fact PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION ' , if , . > r,·· - ,,' ". Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 67 Number 67 VEGETATION SAGEBRUSH VEGETATION SAGEBRUSH BEFORE AND AND SIX SIX YEARS YEARS AFTER AFTER 2,4 2,4-D APPLICATION!} BEFORE -D APPLICATION!} January Federal agencies agencies had As of January 1, 1966, Federal applied the selective herbicide 2,42,4-D applied selective herbicide D to about 48 square miles miles of Colorado range used seasquare Colorado sagebrush sagebrush range used seasonally by mule mule deer Published inforsonally deer (Kufeld 1968). Published information on this herbicide has stTessed stressed ''sagebrush "sagebrush mation this herbicide mortality" subsequent increases increases in production production of mortality" and subsequent natural or seeded seeded grasses. grasses. There little quantitative quantitative natural There is little. information on the long-term long-term effects effects of 2,4-D 2,4-D appliappliinformation cation on specific specific genera genera of shrubs, shrubs, forbs, forbs, and cation grasses common seasonal mule mule deer range in grasses common to seasonal deer range western Colorado. This leaflet leaflet describes describes the vegetavegetawestern Colorado. This tion sampled before, before, and six six years after, 2,42,4-Dapplition sampled years after, D application to a sagebrush, sagebrush, Artemisia Artemisia tridentata spp., cation tridentata spp. community of about about 180 acres. acres. The tract tract comprises comprises community upper winter winter and lower lower summer summer range range for for mule mule deer deer upper spring-summer-fall sage grouse, grouse, and elk, elk springsummer-fall range range for for sage spring-fall range for for cattle. cattle. It is is south south of Big and spring-fall range Dominguez extreme northeastern northeastern Dominguez Canyon and in the extreme portion Uncompahgre National National Forest. ForesL portion of tthe he Uncompahgre community occupies occupies a broad, broad, gently gently undulatundulatThe community north-south trending ridgetop. ridgetop. The elevation elevation is is ing, northsouth trending feet. Soils Soils are are fine-textured, sedimentary about 8,000 feet. fine-textured, sedimentary origin, and highly variable variable in depth. depth. Erosion Erosion and in origin, pedestaled sagebrush sagebrush plants plants are are common common on localized localized pedestaled sites. U. Forest Service Service records records indicate sites. U, S. Forest indicate that that excessive livestock livestock use occurred in this this vicinity vicinity for for cessive use occurred many prior to 1958. The climate climate of the general general many years years prior vicinity has been been described described by Brown Brown {1958) (1958) as having having vicinity an average average annual annual temperature 470 F, an average average temperature of 47° annual precipitation precipitation 15 inches, average annual of 15 inches, and an average growing season season of about 136 136 days. days. .growing METHODS METHODS Butyl ester ester 2,4-D 2,4-D in a diesel diesel oil carrier carrier was Butyl was applied with a fixed fixed-wing U. s. S. Forest Forest plied - wing aircraft aircraft by the U, Service contractor contractor at the rate lbs. per per acre acre on Service rate of 3 lbs. June 8, 1959. No grass grass seeding seeding was carried out, and June was carried -.1bontribution from from Colorado Federal Aid Projects Projects J.contribution Colorado Federal W-1l4-R W-38-R. A portion portion of a larger larger study study W- 114- R and W-38-R. began under the auspices auspices of the Colorado Colorado Cooperative Cooperative began under Wildlife Research Unit; U. S. Bureau Bureau of Sport Sport FishFishWildlife Research eries and Wildlife; Management Institute; Institute; eries Wildlife; Wildlife Wildlife Management Colorado Division Division of Game, Fish Fish and Parks; Parks; and Colorado Colorado state State University, cooperating. Colorado University, cooperating. cattle were were not excluded the following year. PretreatPretreatcattle not excluded following year. ment measur measurements were made made in 1958 and early ment ements were early 1959 and post-treatment post-treatment measurements in 1965. 1959 measurements Air-dry forage forage yield, crown diameter, diameter, and density density Air-dry yield, crown sagebrush were were sampled sampled on 36, randomlyrandomly-selected, of sagebrush selected, 0.01 acre, acre, circular circular plots plots using numbered, wooden using numbered, wooden surveyors' stakes located 100-foot intervals along along surveyors' stakes located at 100foot intervals six evenly evenly spaced, spaced, parallel parallel lines lines extending extending completely completely six across the the study study area. area. Air-dry Air-dry forage forage yie yields (g) were were across lds (g) estimated by regression regression techniques for individual estimated techniques for individual plants rooted within these these plots, wherein Y was the plants rooted within plots, wherein Y was the clipped, airair-dry weight (to the nearest nearest 0.1 g) of all all clipped, dry weight green plant material excluding the flowering parts green plant material excluding the flowering parts crown diameter and X X was was the crown diameter measured measured to the the nearnearest 0.1 foot. Prediction Prediction equations from est equations developed developed from such measurements measurements randomly selected selected sagesagesuch of 86 randomly brush plants plants or or clumps O.I-foot crown crown diameter diameter brush clumps of 0.1-foot over for each treatment were: Y=4. Y=4.83X+15.06X2 and over for each treatment were: 83X+15.06X 2 (pretreatment) Y= 17.48X + 17.15X2 (post(post-treat(pretreatment) and "y'caa treatment), with correlation coefficients (1') of 0.94 ment), with correlation coefficients (r) 0. 94 and 0.95, respectively. respecti vely. The forage forage yields yields of individual individual sagebrush plants from their their sagebrush plants or or clumps clumps thus thus estimated estimated from crown measurements were summed for for crown diameter diameter measurements were summed each plot, each plot, converted converted to pounds, pounds, and projected projected to an air-dry, lb/ lb/ acre Because of the difficulty difficulty air-dry, acre estimate. estimate. Because distinguishing individual plants in dense stands, a of distinguishing individual plants dense stands, "clump" was a discrete discrete body of sagebrush sagebrush foliage "clump" foliage separated 18 or more more inches inches from nearest sageseparated from the nearest sagebrush plant or clump. clump. brush plant Ground cover cover and composition living perennial perennial composition of living vegetation sampled with 100-foot long, loopvegetation was sampled with 42, 100foot longj frequency transects with with observations observations at I-foot I-foot interfrequency transects intervals as modified Parker (1954). Transects vals modified from from Parker Transects were were located in clusters clusters three at randomly randomly located of two or or three selected positions positions along parallel lines. lines. Compass Compass selected along the parallel bearings for each each transect were randomly randomly selected selected bearings for transect were from random numbers. numbers. Each Each cluster cluster was was from a table table of random marked with a steel steel fence fence post post and each each transect marked transect with three angle-iron stakes. Plant Plant nomenclature nomenclature follows three angle - iron stakes. follows Harrington (1954). Harrington RESULTS During late August sagebrush mortality During late August 1959, sagebrush mortality was estimated at about 87 percent. pretreatment total estimated percent. The pretreatment total �living sagebrush sagebrush plants plants or or clumps clumps of 2,723 measured measured living rooted within within tile the 36 plots reduced to 723 723 measmeasrooted plots was reduced ured living plants or clumps clumps by 1965 1965, accompanied accompanied by ured living plants or five-fold reductions reductions in mean forage yield yield (Table five-fold mean forage (Table 1). Significant (P(0. (P<0.001) reductions in mean forage yield yield Significant 001) reductions mean forage average crown diameter of individual individual sagebrush sagebrush and average crown diameter Table 1. L Ground Ground cover cover, forage forage yield, yield, crown crown diameter, diameter, Table and density density of sagebrush sagebrush before before (1958-59), (1958- 59), afterr (1965), 2,42,4-D application. and afte D application.. Measure Haa.s:u· re Loop-frequency transects t:.1~op - Ireq1..11,.tnc)' ttan.sccl:$ (N = 42) 42) = Mean ~1tiil!D. 1958-59 195~-59 24.2 2-4. ..2 58.3 .3 1965 !965 1.9 l.9 4.4 •.4 1958-59 1958-59 446.1 ,;.M; .L 155.4 U34A 1965 92.5 92 .:S 206.2 2,,~ .2 (Percent ground CO.VO-t" cover index) (Pt.!J"Cl1Ut tlrO\.llUt i.nt!cuc) a For.:J.gc per aC:t'C!,;'] acre t.lKC yield yieid PCT ' ' -1 lb) ((Air-dry Ait - d, y lb) Forage yield' yield per rc1.u,gc pt.tr plant planta \958-59 \958 -59 26.75 16 .7!. 39.53 39 .H 1965 l965 20.89 20.69 28.57 18.51 ((Air-dry A r - dr y g) &) Cro"m Cr o wni ddiametera !41'111!.tcr • 1958-59 195859 0.97 0. 97 0.72 (1 . 12 1965 0.59 59 0. 0.51 0 . 51 ((ft) ft } a Density Di:n.s i cya SD so Year Y~aT 1958-59 195859 7,564 1,361. 3,338 3,138 1965 2, 008 2,008 3,657 '.!, 651 per nc.rc acre) ) ((Plants Planr-ii; or clumps c.lumps por plants also occurred. occurred. Even Even though though living living sagebrush sagebrush plants also plants were were not conspicuous conspicuous in 1965 (Fig. 1), the plants the mean airair-dry forage yield yield of 92. 92.55 lb/ lb/acre compares mean dry forage acre compares favorably with the 105.9 ttoo 116. 116.11 oven-dry oven-dry lb/ lb/acre fav orably with acre estimated 317-acre, sagebrushestimated for an untreated, untreated 31 7-acre, sagebrushbitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) tridentata) community community occupying occupying bitterbrush (Purshia granitic-derived soils within Seven-Mile Creek Creek granitic- derived soils within the Seven-Mile portion the Cache Cache la la Poudre Poudre drainage drainage in northnorthportion of tile central Colorado Colorado {M (Medin Anderson central edin and Ande r son 1965). Loop-frequency data are presented by four maj major Loopfr equency data are presented or vegetative categories Figure 2. Beforee 2,42,4-D veget ative cate gories. in Figure Z. Befor D application, sagebrush occurred transects, pli cation, sagebr us h occu rred on all transe cts , and observations individual transects transects rranged obse rv ations on individual anged from fr om 6 2,4-D application, sagebr sagebrush to 44. After Aft e r 2, 4- D application, us h occurred occu1T<:lcl 15 transects tr.ansects and observations observations on individual individual on only 16 transects ranged from Otherr shrubs, mainly t ransects ranged from 4 to 20. Oilie s hrubs , m ainly rabbitbrush, affected in the the ssame general rabbitbrush, were were affected ame gene r al way. wa . Junegrass (Koeleria cristata) observations ranged Junegrass (Koele ria cris t at a) observations ranged from O 0 to 7 pe perr ttransect application and from r ansect before befo r e 22,4-D -!-D application from after 2,4-D application. application. Me Mean observafro m 5 ttoo 37 aft er 2,4-0 an observations of junegrass grasses and fo forbs tions junegrass and all all perennial perennial grasses rbs more than doubled by the postpost-treatment measure- more than doubled t reatment measure data. Loop-frequency Loop-frequency observations observations on individual ment data. individual perennial genera and species species are listed in Table Table 2. It It perennial genera are listed clear that, drastic post-treatment decline is clear that with the the drastic post - treatment decline in sagebrush sagebrush and all forbs, forbs, total vegetation total perennial perennial vegetation observations decreased almost almost one-half one-half in spite spite of observations decreased 3Sampled on 36, permanent, , O. O.OI-acre, plots. containing total l 5snn p led en 36, pt,nn.u.ne.nt Ol - ac.Te , ccircular i rcul i:n · p l o t..s, conta ining .11a tota 2,723 or clwup, clumps in in 19~8 1958-59 in 1965 1965.. A ciJJ"'l! clump ooff 2, 123 living ltvtng plants pl anto or - 59 aand nd 723 ln is discrete unit of of .fol foliage or mor more inches .ft"om from tl,4! the nearest clump h 1 a Ci-acr c tc unit lag~ l18 S at' l? in.cl\ei!i nesro !J C clUlilp or plant. or p l.an t . 1958- 59 59 1958- 1965 KOELERIA KOELER I A CRISTATA CR ISTATA ,0 oj" :~ C ·- -II ':~ L '" IU W w u "'zZ'"<l <I ,_ a:: a: l- ...o t.. 0 a:: rr w LoJ m IXl :::;; :I: :, ::l zZ ·:~ : 7.1 SO ·4.1 '] .--.J■. •-·---··•--■. .. __ - _:·_;.J:~__ . • ._ • . _.L ''1:l - L L _. ·--·-------L.J■ x = 17.5 so :: 6.5 - _ 0 .. ·:~L_ _ __. _L-_ ; ALL PERENNIAL GRASSES - DESIRABLE DESIRABLE FORBS ALL PERENNIAL XX ••••• " g M tn ,_ X x 10.44 •: 10 SO • ,q, 4.6e so , SH RUBS -- HALF HALF SHRUBS, SHRUBS, E~~L EXClUD ING SAGEBRUSH SAGEBRUSH SHRUBS , UDING :~■, a I• • - i"X : Ei6.99 5SO" D 66.5.) :~I ,, X •:: 2s 25.. 1 r so '" S6.5 SO .! LL"''' 2.2 j;X ":: 2 ,2 so •'" 3.3 SD ~ ,) 10 > _______..-L.._____________ •o '-_'~. --■.__.._. &..IL...IIL..,.OL.J___,___--'_......____ ___ ___ __ SAGEBRUSH ARTEMISIA TRIDENTATA SAGEBRUSH ARTEMIS IA T RI DENTATA SSP. '0 •• •• l> •• ix '0 ..•. 224.2 4 ,2 X :: 1.9 so:: 4.4 SO" • e 8.3 '! .s,o " ,o '0 • ,~'" ~ i 10 ~ i iiiii~ l~ 20 2~ 30 NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS ~ i ~ 3~ i m "~ 40 44 15 20 'u NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS NUMBER 30 lC ,. 35 39 " Fig. 1. Major Major vegetative vegetative categories (1958-59) and after after (1965) (1965) 2, 2,4-D application. Sampled Sampled on 42, Fig. categories before before (1958-59) 4-D application. permanent, loop-frequency loop-frequency transects observations per per transect. (Graph by Allen E.. Anderson) permanent, transects with 100 observations transect. (Graph Allen E Anderson) �Fig. 2. Representative Representative portion sagebrush community community before before (left), (left), and after after (right), application. This This Fig. portion of sagebrush (right), 2,4-D 2,4- D application. transect had 15 observations observations for sagebrush and one observation observation for for junegrass zero sagebrush transect for sagebrush junegrass in 1958 and zero sagebrush and 16 junegrass observations in 1965. (Photos junegrass observations (Photos by Allen Allen E. Anderson) Anderson) 16 Table 2. Perennial, Perennial, living vegetation before before (1958-59), after (1965), 2,42,4-D application.a a Table Living vegetation (1958-59), and after D application. Class Cla!S Conunon Name C ~ n N.:ime Scientific Name Scientific N.me Shrubs Sh r:llbS Sagebrush Sa&cbrush ~ t:ridl'.!Dt.SLI ~~spp. 8.ahbtchrl.J,jh Rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus spp. Chriscicbamnu.s .spp. No. Oliseyvac:Ioml ObservationS Ro. 1958-59 1965 196~ l9~8 -59 spp. Snakeweed Sn.o.lui:"Weed Gutierrezia ~ Cuttc-n-ezt..a ~ Snowberry Sno\,lberry Symphoric3rpos sp. Symphor ic.iTJ!;O& sp. Shrubby eriogonum Shr1,1bb:t or1.ogon1,1m Eriogonum micro the cum Er logonum micro c.hccu.r:a Gambel1 oak Gl:Di:1(1 oak ~ _g,1tmbellii Rose Rose Rosa sp. 8.ou !!Ip. grape Oregon gr.1pe B-etbl!r i$ rnp~n$ Fringed sage Fd111tcd ,::igc ~(rlgid11_ Junegrass Jun~.us Koeler-ul ~ Sandwort S,utdWOTt ~sp. • P · ~ 30 30 23 Pussy toes ~ S y tOOI Antennaria ~ • Psp. . 25 17 11 29 32 l2 Stonecrop Sc.onecrop Scdum :ap. sp. Sedl.Sltl. 14 1• Potentilla Pot:en.tilh ~ spp. ~sPP. 10 1D Dandelion D~lldeliOI'\ ~sp. ~ 10 lD Wild onion onion Wild Allium spp. ill!2 •pp. 0 0o L,l6S 400 •oo 2 226 ill 783 783 ~~ 36 138 IJ& 39 31 Jl 24 2• 14 Wheatgrass Wh-e:itgra,:s Agropyron spp.. ~ tpp 16 61 Squirrel tail Squlrrclc.cl1 ~ 11 ll 50 Brame Bt'Oll)C ~spp. ~ spp. Unknown Unknmm ~ Needlcgr3ss :fC!tdlc.11ros:i!1 Stipa sp.· ~ •P 1965 l965 85 Poa spp. ~lipp. hystrix t958~59 1958-59 91 Bluegrass Bl.ui=g-ra&s Care» spp. ea:r~qp. --rfo-:--Qbservati"ons - -'7io-:-m.ic.i""v~ Scientific lc N.1C110 N01mc S,;:<i.entlI 298 ns Needlel• and thread Hll!od aod thread Sedge Sedge ..-.-------. Common Name f.nritmnTt N11m,, 1,026 Subtotal Subtotil 1 ~ Grasses Gt'a.tio-SCS and Sedges Sedges c,Class ... o thcr Othc:r 2 Subtotal ----.sJT :Subtctd ~ Hairy goldllster R.iir-y a;o1d11atnr Chrysopshi ~ Pens temon i'rnttf.man Pens a temon spp.. ~ pp 0 Knotweed Knot1,111~ Polygonum spp. . Polygonum :app 11 ll 0 Sage Sage ~sp. • p . ~ Gilis Gill.a Gilias p sp.. ~ 0 Painted cup Paintedcup Castilleja sp. C&uilleja •P, 0 Yarrow Ya:rtaw Acbille,:1 ~ Mullein XulU!UI Mullein sp. ~ sp. Geranium Go.uot.m ~sp. • P · ~ 0 0 l1 0o --z;(;T '71T --r55 155 44 Subtotal .Subtotal --5 r 20 --zo --;o Total Total 2,364 2, 16• 1,503 1,50:3 Subtotal Subcaut Lichen Lichen 0 Moss H05S 17 0o •-P· I1 l,T52 l, lO? 48Sarnplcd on 42., 42, pa.n::!i1nitnt. permanent, loop-frequency transccts with 100 observations pcr Saatilcd Dil Loop - f"requitn~y Crt11nSC1CU 1J1th LOO ob:servo1cions iJClC: Forbs :rorb.t, Er iogonum spp. spp. cc Erio'ii°num 233 Lupine Lupine Lupinus sp. 1.upit'IUS :Ip. ;g 79 Vetch \'e t.:;h ~sp. ~ •p. 35 3~ Eriogonum Eri1CJ5iOnu..~ 60 11 II transect. t.rans~cc . b Specimens from this this comlTnmity identified as (£. (£. paTTyi parryi parryi) by H. D. SpC!cic.er.s f,:OCI camimmity idenrtfi@d .a.s ~ by H... 0. Harrington, but is 11ot not po!1lt.1ve positive that all observations were limited H.1u·r-i.J\gto0:, but ■author other is thin: .ill obse:rv-,Uari.s were U.oic-ed to this form. co thh !0"1. c~1ainly !. ~ ~ .:lnd ~ cH.:Jinl y !_. ..-ind ~. !.· ~ - �the approximate twotwo-fold increases in all all perennial perennial the approximate fold increases grasses. Rabbitbrush dominate the shrub shrub grasses. Rabbitbrush. did not dominate component during during the post-treatment period as obcomponent post-treatment period served elsewhere (Pechanec at 1965). Snakeweed Snakeweed served elsewhere (Pechanec et al. observations were were similar similar on both measurements measurements. . observations the indicated indicated increase increase in the grass grass componcomponWith the reduction in bare soil observations observations seems ent, a reduction bare soil seems likely. However, However, bare bare soil, soil, erosion erosion pavement, pavement, and likely. rock were unchanged, but litter litter had nearly rock were essentially essentially unchanged, nearly doubled by 1965 (Table (Table 3). Litter Litter seemed seemed to be comcomdoubled prised mainly mainly of dead shrub parts. prised dead shrub parts. Table 3. Number Number of observations four site site factors factors Table observations on four before (1958-59) (1958-59),, and and after after (1965) (1965),, 2,4-D 2,4-D before a application. application.a LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE Blaisdell, Seasonal development development and yield yield Blaisdell, J. P. 1958. Seasonal plants on the upper upper Snake River plains of native native plants River plains their relation relation to certain certain climatic climatic factors factors. . U. 8, S. and their Dept. Agr. Agr. Tech. Tech. Bull. Bull. No. 1190. 68 p. Brown, H. oak in westwest- central central 1958. Gambel Gambel oak Brown, H. E. 1958, Colorado. Ecology Ecology 39(2) :317-327. :317-327. Colorac\o. Year Year; Soil Soil Erosion Ero s ion Pavement Pavf!inei,c. 1958-59 1958 -59 477 II 11 18 !8 1,655 J.,655 1965 1965 486 486 9 14 22,271 , 2.71 Bare .Ba.re Duran for for computer computer programming; Dodson, P P.o F. Duran programming; J. Dodson, Gilbert, 1 G. Hetzel, Hetzel, 0. O. D. Markham,· Markham,- L. Nelson, Nelson, Jr Jr.,., Gilbert and K. Nicolls for field office assistance. assistance. Doris Doris Nicolls for field and office Rust drafted drafted the figure. figure. H H. D. Harrington Harrington verified verified the the Rust identification of several several plant plant species. species. Lee Lee E. Yeager Yeager identification editorial assistance assistance in preparation preparation of this paper. gave editorial this paper. Rock Roek Lit ter Litt.er a SSampled 42, loop-frequency transects with 100 ob5e:rv.ntioas observations .a :nnp le-d 0on 11 4 2 . permanent, pe:rmana.n t , loop - .frequ~ey cra 1tElc.ecs with per transect transect. . p,o.r Harrington, H. plants of Manual of the the plants Harrington, H. D. 1954. Manual Colorado. Sage Books, Books, Denver. Denver. 666 p. Colorado. type-conversion programs programs Kufeld, R. C. 1968. Range type-conversion Colorado and their their impact impact on deer, deer, elk, elk, and in Colorado sage grouse. grouse. Proc. Western Assn. State Game and sage Proc. Western Assn. State Fish Commissioners Commissioners 48:173-187. Fish 48:173-187. Processed. Processed. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION It should construed that that 2,4-D application should not be construed 2,4-D application solely respons•bie responsibie for for the vegetative changes was solely vegetative changes described herein. Among other other possible causal facfacdescribed herein. possible causal tors are: are: annual fluctuations affecting affecting plant plant tors annual weather weather fluctuations yields in sagebrush sagebrush communities communities (Blaisdell yields (Blaisdell 1958), rodent-caused sagebrush mortality mortality (Mueggler (Mueggler 1965), rodent-caused sagebrush changes in cattle cattle grazing grazing intensity. data are are and changes intensity. No data available oh on annual annual weather weather fluctuations vicinavailable fluctuations in the the vicinity, but presumably due to voles ity, but old bark-stripping, bark- sh·ipping, presumably voles (Microtus ssp.), was common common on botb both living (Microtus p.), was living and dead sagebrush plants Also, gross gross estimates estimates by sagebrush plants in 1965. Also, U. S. Forest Forest Service Service of average, average, annual, annual, animal: animal the U.S. months use use by cattle cattle, which general vicinity vicinity reremonths which the general ceived, , were were 750 AM from 1945 1945 to 1957 and 336 AM ceived AM from AM from 1958 to 1965. from ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS L.. J. Bertlshofer Bertlshofer, , D. J. O'Rourke O'Rourke, 1 R. I thank thank L Schmitt, and G. U. S. Forest Forest Service Service Schmitt, G. T. Turner Turner of the U.S. for material aid and background background data; data; D. C. Bowden for material for aid in the statistical statistical analysis analysis; ; G. G. Beck for Beck and B. Medin, D. D. E. E.,, and A. E. Anderson. Vegetative Medin, Anderson. 1965. Vegetative analysis. Pp. 351-398. 351-398. In Gatne Game Research Research Report, Report, analysis. Jan. Fish and Parks Parks Jan. 1965, Part Part 3. Colorado Colorado Game, Game, Fish Dept., Denver. Denver. pp, pp.327-500 Processed. Dept., 327-500 Processed. Mueggler, W. F. 1967. Voles Voles damage damage big Mueggler, big sagebrush sagebrush in southwestern southwestern Montana. Mgmt. 20(2): Montana. J. Range Mgmt. 88-91. 88-91. Parker, K. W. 1954. A method method for measuring Parker, W. 1964. for m ea.suring trend trend range condition condition on national national forest forest ranges with in range ranges With supplemental instructions instructions for measurement supplemental for measurement and observation vigor, , composition composition and browse. observation of vigor browse. U.S. Forest Service, Service, Washington, Forest Washington, D. C. 26 p. with 10page supplement. supplement. Processed. Processed. Pechanec, 1 J. J. F., F., A. P. P. Plummer, Plummer, J. H. Robertson, Pechanec J. H. Robertson, and Sagebrush control control on rangelands. rangelands. A. C. Hull. 1965. Sagebrush U. S. Dept. Agr. 277. 40 p. U. Agr. Handbook Handbook 277, Allen Anderson Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher Researcher Wildlife September, 1969 September, �r Outdoor Fact Facts Outdoor COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF OF GAME. GAME, FISH FISH AND PARKS DIVISION AND PARKS PUBLISHED THE PUBLISHED BY THE Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game 1- ,', . if , i .• -..> 1\'· \,'. .. - ' 68 Number Number 68 THE MICROSCOPIC MICROSCOPIC TECHNIQUE IN FO FOOD HABIT STUDIES!! THE TECHNIQUE IN O D HABIT STUDIES!! The microscopic microscopic technique for identifying small small The particles of plant tissue tissue has proven useful in food food particles of of mammalian species. Baumgartner Baumgartner habit studies studies of mammalian species. Martin (1939), (1939), studying the food food habits habits of of tree tree and Martin squirrels, were among the first first to use this method; squirrels, and microtechnique microtechnique has been used for studying the and of cottontails cottontails (Dusi (Dusi 1949), 1949), jackrabbits food habits habits of jackrabbits 1966; Sparks 1968), pocket gophers (Bear and Hansen 1966; Sparks 1968), (Myers 1962), 1962), and voles, chipmunks and whitewhite-footed footed 1962). Dahl Dahl (unpublished) mice (Johnson 1962). (unpublished) employed the technique to identify plants samples plants in esophageal esopbageal samples domestic cattle cattle in eastern eastern Colorado. Ueckert Ueckert from domestic (1968) recently completed a study on the diets (1968) recently diets and preferences of three species species of of gras grasshoppers forage preferences of three shoppers northern Colorado, using microtechnique identiin northern microtechnique in identifying plant material material in grasshopper grasshopper crops. crops. PREPARATIONOF SLIDES PREPARATION OF SLIDES of each stomach stomach sample In practice, practice, the contents of are thoroughly mixed, placed on on a silk silk cloth strainer, are strainer, water. The sample sample is then and washed with cool water. absorbent paper sample is placed on absorbent paper to dry. Next, the sample placed on on a microscopic slide, immersed immersed with one or microscopic slide, two drops of of Hertwig's Hertwig's ssolution, and held over aflame aflame olution, and two until the solution comes to a boil. A A small untH small alcohol lamp works very well for heating slides. slides. "The " The chloral hydrate hydrate and and hydrochloric hydrochloric acid in the solution, solution, chloral together dissolve the stai-chand starch and together with the heat, quickly dissolve clear (Baumgartnerr and and Martin Martin 1939) 1939).. clear the tissue." tissue. " (Baumgartne Baumgartner and and Martin Martin made permanent permanent slides Baumgartner slides by adding one or two more drops of of Hertwig' Hertwig'ss solution after after the slide had had cooled, putting on on a cover slip, and and using glycerine and ringing cement to seal. seal. slip, glycerine and Recent authors authors ""fixed" slide, or made it fixed" the slide, it a perperone or two two drops of of Hoyer's Hoyer's manent mount, by adding one slide was then d1·ied dried solution under under a cover slip. The slide in a laboratory laboratory oven oven at 60° 600 C for at least least 24 24 hours, hours, or Hoyer's solution solution solidified, solidified. until the Boyer's 1JContributionfrom Federal Aid Project Proj ect W-40-R. W- 40- R. .!/contribution fr om Federal Formula Hertwig's Solution Solution (Baumgartner (Baumgartner and Formula for Hertwig's Martin 1939): 1939): Martin HCIl 19 cc HC 150 cc water Added to: 150 water 60 cc glycerine glycerine 60 270 gr chloral chloral hydrate crystals 270 hydrate crys tals Formula for Hoyer's Hoyer's Solution (Baker and Wharton Formula 1952): 1952): 200 gigr chloral chloral hydrate hydrate crystals crystals 200 20 cc glycerine glycerine 20 30 gr photo purified purified gum gum arabic arabic 30 50 cc water water 50 water and and gum gum arabic arabic at room temperature, temperature, Mix water dissolve chloral chloral hydrate add and dissolve hydrate crystals crystals and glycerine. Let stand one one week, stirring stirring ocfinally, glycerine. casionally. Filter Filter through cheese casionally. cheese cloth. NOTE: These These mixtures solution in mixtures may be put in solution NOTE: less than an hour by hot-water less by using a hotwater bath and mixing with a blender. blender. Stomach contents of of the smaller smaller mammals, mammals, such rabbits and rodents, rodents, are are usually chewed chewed into paras rabbits particles small small enough directly on on micromicroticles enough to be used directly slides following following washing. Coarser Coarser samples samples scopic slides size (about (about one millimillimust be reduced reduced to a uniform size meter) mill. meter) with a Wiley mill. A reference collection should be made of of A complete refe r ence collection on areas mammals, birds, plants growing on areas where mammals, birds , or insects are are collected. species must then insects collected. Each plant species be ground into small small particles, similar to the food particles, similar food slide is made for being identified. Then, a permanent permanent slide each plant species, species, using the t he technique for mounting food material. material. Since epidermal epidermal characteristics characteristics of food of species may change with different different stages stages some plant species of maturity, maturity, it is desirable desirable to have several several refe reference of rence slides slides for each plant undergoing study. IDENTIFYINGPLANT MATERIAL IDENTIFYING PLANT MATERlAL Plant species species in food are identified food materials materials are identified by histological comparisons comparisons with plant tissues tissues referreferhistological slides of known known plants plants.. A A compound compound mienced to slides croscope identification. Some cros cope is used in making identification. histological are: histological characters characters used in identifying plants plants are: (1) size size or shape of of stomata· stomata; (2) (2) general general pattern pattern of (1) �cells; (3) (3) structural structural peculiarities peculiarities in cell walls; (4) (4) cells; distinctive characters characters of of conductive tissue elements; distinctive tissue elements; (5) specialized instance, and (5) specialized forms forms ofpubescence. of pubescence. For For instance, cell walls in the photo of note the wavy wavy cell of Agropyron smithii (Fig. 1). 1). This type of of cell wall is typical of smithii C1 .. tissue from Agropyron smithii smithii magnified Fig. 1. Leaf tissue 125 R. M. _ __ 125 times. times. (Photo by R. M. Hansen) Hansen)--most grasses, grasses, and bone-shaped bone-shaped stomata stomata are are also characteristic in several several species species of of grasses. grasses. EpiderEpidercharacteristic hairs of of plants are extremely extremely varied varied in size, size, mal hairs Star-shaped epidermal epidermal hairs of shape, and density. Star-shaped hairs of Sphaeralcea coccinea (Fig. 2) 2) are also found on Sphaeralcea coccinea found on 2. Epidermal Epidermal hairs hairs of Sphaeralcea Sphaeralcea coccinea coccinea Fig. 2. 125 times. (Photo by R. M. Hansen) Hansen) magnified 125 times . (Photo R. M. Eurotia lanata. lanata. Figure illustrates the donut-shaped Eurotia Figure 3 illustrates structures found Opuntia. It is essential essential to have a structures found in Opuntia. reference food plants reference collection collection of all important important food plants occurring in the study area. One histological histological character character curring area. One typical of of several species; therefore, therefore, several several may be typical several species; 125 times. Fig. 3. Opuntia tissue tissue magnified 125 times. (Photo by R. M. M. Hansen) Hansen) R. characters fragcharacters may be needed to identify a plant fragprepare a list, ment. It is helpful to prepare list, supplemented by diagrams or photos, of of all characters diagrams characters typical of a given species. species. An card system system facilitates facilitates use An index card of reference reference slides. slides. of ESTIMATINGSPECIES DIET ESTIMATING SPECIES COMPOSITION COMPOSITION IN IN DIET Myers (1962) and Bear Bear and and Hansen (1966) (1966) estiMyers (1962) estimated the percentage species in the total total percentage of each food food species food intake for each of 10 10 systematically ranfood systematically and randomly taken microscopic microscopic fields at 35-power magnification. Percentages Percentages obtained in this manner manner were totaled and 10 (the (the total total number of fields), and divided by 10 fields), giving the percent percent composition of of each food food item or species in the slide examined. Myers (1962) species (1962) tested tested the results results of of 35 35 fields against of 10 10 fields against those of fields and found them only only insignificantly insignificantly different. different. found Sparks and Malechek (1968) (1968) reported reported on a technique determining dry-weight dry-weight composit composition of grass grass and for determining ion of estimated by the microscopic forb mixtures mixtures as estimated microscopic techtechnique. They took samples samples that contained known known grasses and forbs, forbs, and prepared micromicroamounts of grasses and prepared Hertwig's and scopic slides slides using Hertwig's and Hoyer's Hoyer's solutions. solutions. Plants in the samples samples were ground ground over a onePlants millimeter screen screen to reduce all fragments fragments to a unimillimeter form size. size. Mixtures Mixtures of known dry weights were of known prepared forbs and grasses, grasses, and five slides prepared with the forbs slides were prepared prepared for each sample or mixture. mixture. The slides were were examined under a compound slides compound binocular binocular microscope at 125-power magnification. Twenty Twentyfields microscope fields were examined on on each slide, of 100 100 fields slide, or a total total of fields slides of of each grass-forb grass-forb mixture. spefor five slides mixture. Each speFrequency percentpercentcies in each field was recorded. recorded. Frequency per species species per 100 locations) locations) ages (number of fields per per 100 species in the mixture. mixture. Frewere tabulated tabulated for each species Fre- �quency quency percentages percentages were were converted converted toparticledensity to particle density per Fracker and per field, using a table table developed by Fracker Brischle (1944}. (1944). The The relative relative density, density, expressed expressed as aa Btischle percentage, percentage, of of each each species species in the mixture mixture was caland used to estimate estimate the percentage percentage of of dry culated, and weight weight of that species species in the mixture. mixture. There There was no significant significant difference difference (student's (student's t-test, t-test, P ( 0.01) 0.01) between estimated estimated dry-weight dry-weight percentages percentages (relative (relative density) and actual actual dry-weight dry-weight pe.rcentages percentages of of grasses grasses and forbs forbs in the mixtUres" mixtures. < Curtis and McIntosh (f950), (1950), "two According to Curtis requirements requirements .. ... . must be met before before frequency frequency perpercentage can be converted converted to density. density."" Plant fragfragments ments must must be distributed distributed randomly over the slide, slide, density of of particles particles must be such that the and the density most common species species does not occur occur in more more than 86 86 percent percent of of the microscope microscope fields. fields. A A random distridistribution can pe o aa unibe attained attained by reducing reducing particles particles tto form size, size, thoroughly mixed. A frequency frequency of of less less than 86 percent percent for the most common species species can be main86 tained by by adjusting adjusting the amount of material material mounted on the slide. Tltis This is done by by trial trial and error error until the on technician becomes familiar technician becomes familiar with the material material (Sparks and and Malechek Malechek 1968). 1968). Bear, Bear, G. G. D. and and R. M. M. Hansen. 1966. 1966. Food habits, habits, growth and reproduction reproduction of white-tailed white-tailed jackrabjackrabbits outhern Colorado. Colo. State bits ih in ssouthern State Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Sta. Tech. Bull. Bull. No. No. 90. 90. 59 59 p. Curtis, J. T. and R. R. P P McIntosh. 1950. 1950. The interrelainterrelaCurtis, certain analytic analytic and synthetic synthetic phytosociophytosociotions of certain logical characters. characters. Ecology 31:434-455. logical Fracker, asuring Fracker, S. S. B. and and J. A. A. Brischle. Brischle. 1944. 1944. Me Measuring the local distribution distribution of Ribes. Ecology 25:283-303. D. R. R. 1962. 1962. Effects Effects of of habitat habitat change on the Johnson, 0. habits of of rodents. rodents. Ph.D. Thesis, Thesis, Colo. Colo. State State food habits Univ., Fort Fort Collins, Collins, Colo. 94 p. p. Myers, G. G. T. 1962. 1962. Food habits habits of the plains plains pocket Myers, gopher in the sandhills sandhills of of eastern eastern Colorado, Colorado. M. M. S. Thesis, Colo. Colo. state State Univ., Fort Fort Collins, Colo. 73p. 73 p. Thesis, Sparks, tailed jackrabbits Sparks, D. D. R. R. 1968. 1968. Diet of of blackblack-tailed jackrabbits sandhill rangeland rangeland in Colorado. JJ.. Range Mgmt. on sandhill 21:203-208. Sparks, Sparks, D. R. and J. C. Malechek. 1968. 1968. Estimating Estimating percentage percentage dry weight in diets diets using using a microscopic microscopic technique. J. Range Mgmt. 265. J.Range Mgmt. 21:26421:264-265. Baker, E.W. E. W. and G. G. W. W. Wharton. 1952. 1952. An An introducintroducBaker, acarology. 465 p., MacMillan Co., New NewYork. tion to acar ology. 465 York. Ueckert, Ueckert, D. D. N. N. 1968. 1968. Diets of of some grasshoppers grasshoppers on mountain herbland herbland in northern northern Colocommon on rado. M. M. S. S. Thesis, Thesis, Colo. State Univ., Fort Fort Collins, Collins, Colo. Colo. 43 43 p, p. Baumgartner, Baumgartner, L. L. and and A. A. C. C. Martin. Martin. 1939. 1939. Plant Plant histology as an aid in squirrel squirrel food-habit food-habit studies. studies. J. Wildl. Wildt Mgmt. MgmL 3(2):266-268. George D. D. Bear Bear Researcher Wildlife Researcher October, October, 1969 1969 LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED �Outdoor Facts Outdoor PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE " COLORADO COLORADO Ffit ::. DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES /'. , ' , I DIVISION GAME, FISH FISH AND PARKS DIVIS ON OF GAME, AND PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number Number 69 EVALUATION OF ANTELOPE CENSUS TECHNIQUE!) TECHNIQUE!} EVALUATION OF AERIAL AERIAL ANTELOPE CENSUS Aircraft have played an increasingly important Aircraft increasingly important role in big game census census during during recent recent years. role years . Antelope, perhaps perhaps because because of the habitat they occupy, probably lend themselves themselves to aerial surveys better probably aerial surveys better other big game species. Fish than other species. Colorado Game, Fish Parks Division research research personnel, personnel, recognizing and Parks recognizing management application, application, attempted attempted to evaluate evaluate this management effects of of weather weather,, types of aircraft, aircraft, and some effects behavior associated associated with aerial aerial ce11susing censusing of of this behavior species. species. Information was collected, collected, 1963 1963 to 1967, 1967, on Information on the plains region of north-central plains of northcentral Colorado and the tile shrub-dominated rangelands rangelands in northwestern northwestern Coloshrub-dominated rado. Aerial Aerial counts with fixed-wing airplanes airplanes were were area for a two-year two-year conducted once a month in each area period determine seasonal seasonal variability variability in aerial aerial period to determine censusing. Flights Flights were three three times times a day - early early censusing. mid-day,, and late late afternoon afternoon - to determine determine morning, mid-day census time. time. Strips Strips 1I-mile wide tthe he most suitable suitable census rnile wide were flown flown over each area area at an altitude altitude of 100 100 to 300 300 were Visibility of of antelope as influenced by ground feet. Visibility cover,, light conditions, wind velocity was recover conditions , and wind recorded rated corded for each count, and each condition was rated in one of of three three classes classes depending on on the relative relative perperof snow cover, cover, cloud cover, cover, and air air turbulence. turbulence. cent of enumerated and classified classified Each antelope herd was enumerated according to sex and age (adults or fawns). The sevsevaccording eral types of aircraft aircraft used in the surveys surveys were were also also eral evaluated. evaluated. aggregations dissolved dissolved into smaller aggregations smaller groups. groups . Counts were low low during the summer summer months, May through through were September, when antelope were were dis dispersed. September, persed. The averaverof herds herds counted during during summer summer ranged age size size of ranged from 3 to 11 11 animals. animals. Buck:doe ratios ratios were were variable variable until when bucks were closely associated associated llfltil fall when were more more closely with does. does . appeared to be the Late August and September September appeared best of the bes t months for conducting condueting fawn fawn counts. Most of dispersed in June and the fawns were does were dispersed were often hidden, giving low low fawn:doe fawn:doe ratios. ratios. By July does began were running with does. The highgrouping and fawns were est fawn fawn counts were obtained in late est late August and September, when when fawns were were still noticeably smaller smaller September, still noticeably easily counted. than adults and easily DAILY VARIATIONS DAILY VARIATIONS Aerial counts were generally generally highest highest in early Aerial early morning hours hours and lowest during mid-day. mid-day. Evening morning intermediate between high and low counts were intermediate low counts. total number of animals recorded recorded for midmid-day The total of animals day percent lower than morning morning flights averaged averaged 26 26 percent averaged 18 18 percent lower counts; and evening counts averaged percent lower morning counts. Variations Variations in counts due to time time than morning January and February of day were were not as critical critical in January February since large large herds herds were easily easily seen, during midsince seen, even during day. Variability Variability in counts during mid~winter mid-winter was counts during inability of the observer observer to obtain an probably due to inability accurate enumeration of large, large, often scattered, herds. accurate enumeration of scattered, herds. SEASONALVARIA TrONS SEASONAL VARIATIONS The highest highest total total counts were were obtained November through March when when antelope were through March were grouped into wintering herds. herds. However, accurate accurate sex sex ratio ratio and total total tering counts were were difficult to obtain during January and during January February for herds herds of of 75 75 or more more animals. animals. On On sevFebruary several occasions occasions aerial aerial photos were obtained of large eral of large herds numbering numbering 100 100 to 300 300 animals. animals. Counts from herds aerial photos indicated 20 percent percent error error aerial indicated as much as 20 aerial census census of of the herds. herds. Antelope were in aerial were most easily numbered 10 10 to 30 anianieasily counted when groups numbered mals,, as in early early winter winter before large mals before they formed formed large herds and in late winter winter or early spring when winter winter herds early spring Itontribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-40-R ltontribution W-40- R L DIRECTIONOF FLIGHTS DIRECTION OF FLIGHTS Eight paired paired flights were were made, Apr April through il through test the effect direction on the August, to test effect of flight direction animals counted. Areas censused number of of animals Areas were were censused direction morning, while flying in an east-west east-west di r ection one morning, and counted again the following mor morning ning while flying direction. A higher total count was north- south direction. higher total in a north-south obtained on east-west east-west flights flights in four of of the pairs, pairs, and higher total total counts were were recorded recorded on north-south north-south higher flights in the remaining remaining three three pairs. pairs. One One flight was flights disregarded due to noncomparability noncomparability of conditions. conditions. disregarded ratios for north-south north-south flights were were similar Buck:doe ratios s imilar east-west flights flights in April and May. Counts during to east-west during �June to August showed greater greater variability variability between paired paired flights, flights, without showing aa distinct distinct pattern. pattern. There There was a great great amount amoUllt of variation variation in the fawn: fawn: ratios in June and July, but paired paired flights in doe ratios August showed showed very similar similar ratios. ratios. The ratio ratio of of or fawns fawns to does appeared appeared related related to the bebucks or havior havior of the animals, animals, as previously previously mentioned. It would would appear appear from from this this sample sample that the direction direction of flight has little little effect on on the total number number of of animals animals counted. under good good light conditions. A A counts than obtained under partial overcast overcast made counting more difficult difficult than partial when the sky was either either clear clear or fully overcast overcast beairplane, moving through alternating alternating patches patches cause the airplane, sunlight and shadow, was in constantly constantly changing of sunlight observer. A A good good backbacklight, always difficult for the observer. bare ground; and green green vegetation vegetation was ground was bare better better than the brownish brownish cast cast of of dormant dormant vegetation. vegetation. There There was considerable considerable rabbitbrush rabbitbrush on the northnorthwestern western Colorado study study area, area, and when when it was in full very well with the yellow bloom antelope blended very color of of rabbitbrush rabbitbrush patches. patches. Spotty snow snow made the color poorest poorest background background because because antelope te':lded te'1ded to blend into this this color pattern. pattern. Turbulent Turbulent air air conditions appeared appeared to have little little effect on count count accuracy, accuracy, but affected sex sex ratios ratios because because pilots pilots could not fly safely safely at the low low altitudes altitudes required required for distinguishing distinguishing sex sex at animals. and age of the animals. TYPE OF AIRCRAFT AIRCRAFT Several Several types types of aircraft aircraft were used for aerial aerial census, census, including the DeHaviland Beaver, Beaver, PA18 PA18 Piper Piper Cub, Cessna Cessna 180, 180, Cessna Cessna 182, 182, Hughes Hughes helicopter, helicopter, and Cub, aa super-charged super-charged Bell 47G3B 47G3B helicopter. helicopter. Fixed-wing Fixed-wing aircraft wing type, recommended aircraft were were of of the highhigh-wing recommended for for census census work. The Beaver Beaver and Cessnas Cessnas had sidesideby-side by-side seating seating for the pilot pilot and observer. observer. In the Piper Piper Cub the observer observer sat sat behind the pilot, giving poorer forward, forward, but better better sideside-by-side, visihim poorer by- side, visibility. bility. The Piper Piper Cub Cub was good good for big game census census because because of its slower slower speed and and greater greater maneuveramaneuverability, bility, required required in counting animals animals in large large herds. herds. Helicopters Helicopters possessed possessed exc~llent excellent maneuverability maneuverability and visibility. visibility. They are, are, however, slow slow in cruise cruise flight flight and have only only about aa 2.5-hour 2.5-hour fuel supply. Fixedwing aircraft Fixed-wing aircraft were were affected to a greater greater extent by winds and rough air, air, but these these aircraft aircraft have aa faster faster cruising cruising speed and approximately approximately aa 5.5-hour 5.5-hour fuel supply. Rental costs costs of of airplanes airplanes were $20 $20 to $25 $25 per per hour; the Hughes helicopter helicopter cost $65 $65 per per hour, and the Bell was $80 $80 per per hour. The Hughes Hughes craft craft was unsatisfactory unsatisfactory because because of of its its flight limitations. limitations. Fig. 1. 1. Ground cover cover is is aa condition that must must be conconsidered sidered in aerial aerial censu· censuss of big game. Upper photo shows shows approximately approximately 260 260 antelope against against a mottled background; lower photo shows approximately approximately 110 110 antelope against against aa contrasting contrasting background. (Photo by George D. D. Bear) CENSUS CONDITIONS CENSUSCONDITIONS Light condition was one of of the most important important factors factors affecting affecting counts. Whenever the sky was overovercast cast antelope were were more difficult to see, see, giving lower Six paired paired (helicopter:fixed (helicopter:fixed wing airplane) airplane) flights flights through February. February. were made during each month, July through A A 24 percent percent higher higher count was obtained with the helihelicopter copter in July than with the fixed-wing plane. Counts December December to February February were nearly nearly equal, averaging averaging 33 percent percent variation variation between helicopter helicopter andfixed-wing and fixed-wing planes. wing flight in October planes. The fixedfixed-wing October yielded aa percent higher count than the helicopter 23· 23-percent helicopter count. Helicopter Helicopter counts in all paired paired flights showed less less variation variation between morning, noon, and and evening counts; also, there there was less less variation variation in the buck:doe:fawn buck:doe:fawn ratios ratios in helicopter helicopter than in fixed-wing fixed-wing plane counts. �AERIAL ANTELOPE ANTELOPE SURVEY SURVEY AERIAL Aircraft ___ _ _ Pilot._ _ _ _ __ Date _ ____ Aircraft Take-off _ _ _ _ ___Land _ _ _ __ __ _ Time: Talce-off Flight (hrs.) _ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ Flight (hrs.) helicopter appeared appeared to be better The helicopter better than the fixed-wing aircraft for counts when antelope were fixedwing aircraft were scattered, or when when more more accurate accurate sex ratio scattered, sex and age ratio were desired. desired. However, helicopter rental was counts were helicopter rental several times times that of fixed-wing airplanes. Fixedseveral fixed-wing airplanes. Fixedwing plane cowits counts of wintering wintering antelope herds herds were were nearly equal to helicopter helicopter counts. nearly Start census census _ ____ Finish Finish _ _ __ _ __ Start (hrs.)) _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ Total (hrs. Observer(s): _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ ___ Observer(s): (circle applicable applicable entry entry in each Counting Conditions: (circle category) category) cover - Condition II.. Bare Bare ground Ground cover --- -- ---- - Condition Condition II. II. 100 100 percent percent snow cover cover Condition III. Poor Poor background, or spotty snow snow cover - Condition I. Clear Clear skies skies Condition II. Broken overcast 50% 50%of Broken overcast of the time time Condition m. III. Solid overcast overcast Air - Condition I. Good, Good, solid solid air air moderate downCondition II. Mild to moderate downdraft draft and turbulence turbulence Severe turbulence Condition III. m. Severe turbulence and downdrafts L __o_c_at_i_o_n: Location: _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ _ _ ___ Weather: (General for period, period, specific specific for day)_ __ Penological Data: (Development stage stage of of vegetation) Penological Recommendations Recommendations for Counts during the first first few hours hours of day1. Conduct counts during light, clear day, and light , on a clear and when the ground is free free from snow. 2. Malce Make total total annual counts and sex sex ratio ratio counts in 2. either early early winter, late winter winter and early either winter, or late early spring. spring. 3. Make fawn counts in late late August or September September before the hunting season. season. before rating sheet sheet should be completed completed for each flight, 4. A rating evaluating census census conditions and recording recording the evaluating time time of of flight. George D. Bear Bear Wildlife Researcher Researcher October, 1969 October, 1969 �Facts Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED BY THE THE PUBLISHED " COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet d .=:> I ,. '\ " ' Number 70 Number 70 U ANTELOPETRANSPLANTSINCOLORADO A TE LOPE TRA SPLANTS IN COLORADO!./ speAntelope have often been cited as a big game species subject regulation by proper proper management cies subject to regulation practices. Results obtained in Colorado have conpractices. Results firmed that that the species species is well worth this firmed this attention. Early-day observations indicate indicate that there there may Early-day observations two million antelope in Colorado in 1860 1860 have been two (Seton 1927). 1927). Due Due to uncontrolled slaughter by market market uncontrolled slaughter (Seton hunters, and and alteration alteration of of original original habitat hunters, habitat by man, the State's reduced to less less than 1,000 1,000 by State's population was reduced 1918. Alarmed Alarmed legislators legislators then enacted laws and 1918. established effort to protect restore established refuges refuges in an effort protect and restore antelope and insure insure their their occurrence occurrence in the State's State's fauna. elsewhere, The antelope population, in Colorado as elsewhere, responded rather rather slowly to protection. protection. However, some responded area herds herds increased increased enough enough to permit transplanting area permit transplanting programs during the 1940's and and 1950's. Thus, anteprograms high-density areas areas were used to restock restock lope in high-density formerly occupied range. The animals animals vacant but formerly airwere captured captured by herding them with a fixed-wing aircraft into a large large group-trap, group-trap, from which they were craft trucked to release release sites sites (Hoover (Hoover et al., 1959). 1959). This trucked still used, although fixed-wing aircraft aircraft method is still have largely replaced by the more maneuverable maneuverable largely been replaced helicopter (Figs. 1-3). helicopter Antelope transplant transplant records records for Colorado are are 1. In this compilation compilation herd status status and and given in Table 1. harvest figures figures are are summarized summarized by county county because because harvest lines have remained remained unchanged. Some inboundary lines unchanged, Some formation on on the current current status status of of herds formation herds in these these unavailable at the present present time because because counties is unavailable antelope surveys surveys are are conducted by game management units, the boundaries of which often do do not coincide units, boundaries of subdivisions. Most early transplants were with legal subdivisions. early transplants were in counties having no no antelope, given in Table 1 as "unknown" County. 'unknown" under Herd Status for County. L L Fig, 1. 1. Antelope are are generally generally rather rather easily easily handled, Fig. requiring only only one does and fawns requiring one or two men to transport by hand. hand. (Photo by Bud Bud Smith) transport of course, no attention county Antelope, of course, pay no attention to county lines, occurred as lines, and movements between herds herds occurred populations increased. increased. Thus, the transplant transplant in the Wet Wet near Westcliffe, Custer County, County, in Westcliffe, Custer Mountain Valley near 1955: There There were no known known antelope in Custer Custer County County 1955: 58 antelope (22 (22 bucks, 25 25 does, and 11 11 fawns) fawns) when 58 were released. The first first hunting season season was in 1959; 1959; were released. since, 397 397 antelope (303 87 does, and 7 (303 bucks, 87 and since, fawns) have been harvested harvested by hunters. hunters. Therefore, Therefore, fawns) nearly renearly seven times times as many antelope have been rearea as originally originally released. released. Aerial moved from this this area Aerial surveys indicated indicated a population of of 261 261 animals animals in 1968. 1968. surveys 1/Contribution from Federal Aid Project .!!contribution Federal Aid Project W-40-R. isolated release release was in the antelopeantelopeAnother isolated vacant northern end of of the San Luis Valley near near northern end �3. Sizeable Sizeable numbers numbers of antelope - 20 or more Fig. 3. more may be captured captured in one plane drive drive of animals animals into trap. A large large crew is required required to handle catch trap. promptly promptly and effectively. effectively. (Photo by Bud Smith) neck-band being attached attached by trapping trapping Fig. 2. Antelope neck-band crew. (Photo by Bud Bud Smith) Smith) crew. Saguache, Saguache, Saguache County. County. The first first planting planting was in 1948 1948 and the last last in in 1955, 1955, involving 117 117 antelope (38 (38 bucks, 46 46 does, and 33 33 fawns) fawns) during the eighteightyear year period. period. The first first hunting season season was in 1958; 1958; since, 1,426 1,426 animals animals (872 (872 bucks, 480 480 does, and 74 74 since, fawns) have been harvested harvested by hunters, hunters, or approxiapproximately years ago. Aerial mately 12 12 times times the original original plant plant 20 20years Aerial surveys surveys indicated indicated aa population of 370 370 antelope in 1968. 1968. Not all transplants transplants showed this degree degree of of increase. increase. For For example, aa total total of 46 46 antelope antelope were released released in Delta County County during during 1949 1949 and and 1950. 1950. No No other antelope Delta were present present at the time of of the first first release. release. A A total only 75 75 animals animals have been harvested harvested in in Delta of only County, County, and the current current (1968) (1968) population is is estimated estimated 91 animals. animals. The gain gain from this planting has been at 91 relatively relatively slow. management since since about about 1945, 1945, most antelope Under management in Colorado have made dramatic dramatic comepopulations in backs. As stated, stated, they were reduced reduced to fewer than backs, 1,000 1,000 animals animals by 1918; 1918; present present estimates estimates (1968) (1968) indicate aa population of of 20,000 20,000 in the state. state. Through Through transplanting programs programs the species species has been restored transplanting restored to all of of its its former former range with the exception of Middle Park Park in Grand County. Hoover et et al. (1959) (1959) listed listed in the form of quesseveral factors factors that should be considered considered in tions sev,eral appraising transplant site: appraising a proposed proposed transplant site: Was the area area formerly formerly occupied by antelope? If so, what caused caused them to become responsible for become exttnct? ext~nct? Do factors factors responsible extirpation extirpation still still exist? exist? Has th. thee habitat habitat been altered altered sufficiently sufficiently to render render the area area unsuitable unsuitable for prongpronghorns at 1the present present time? time? Is the area area large large enough support a huntable herd? herd? And are topography, to support And are climate, vegetative type, land use, climate, water, water, vegetative use, landownerlandownerpattern, and attitude attitude of local local residents favorable ship patte,rn, residents favorable to management management and sustained sustained yield of antelope antelope on the transplant: transplant area? area? LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Hoover, Ft. R. L., C. E. Till, Till, and S. Ogilvie. 1959. 1959. The antelope of Colorado. A A research research and management management study. Fish Tech. Bull. study. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish No. 4. 110 No.4. 110 p. Seton, E. E. T. 1927. 1927. Lives Lives of game animals. animals. Vol. Vol. III, 780 780 p. Literary Literary Guild Guild of America, America, Inc. New New York. (p. 425) (p.425) George D. Bear Bear Wildlife Researcher Researcher October October 1969 1969 �Table i11 Antelope tr:msplants transplants in Colorado. Colorado, 1945-1908. 1945-1968. Table l. 1. Antelope Antelope Antelope Released Released Bucks Bucks Does Does Fawns Fawns Total Total Cou11ty County lle1eas• Release Sit& Site Dale Date Al.lmOsa Alamosa -Saca. Baca Son Valley San Luis Luis Valley 12 12 ,ni, mL NN or of Pritchett Pritchett l19 mi. mi. -r..·w NW q! of Prit6hotl Pritchett 66"mi. ml, N of of Mcclave McClave 20 mi. s or 811\nca 20 mi. S of Blanca 14 14 n,i. mi. S S of of Westclille Westcliffe Well~ Wells Gulch, Gulch, N of of Delta, Delta, near near US US ~O 50 1/ 64 1/ 7/ 7/64 14 14 12/ 53 12/ 2/ 2/53 12/ 14/ 53 12/14/53 Bent 1/ 29/ 52 1/29/52 Costill 2/ 2 1/ 51 Costillaa 2/21/51 Custer 1/ 55 Custer 1/ //55 Delta 2/ 16/ 49 Delta 2/16/49 12/ 30/49 12/30/49 2/ 11/ 50 2/11/50 Kiowa 20 mi. E of 1/ 51 Kiowa of Eads Eads 1/ 4/ 4/51 r.as 34 li/16/ 48 34 1111. mi. E E of of jct. jet. US US 160-350 160-350 Las Anin1as Animas 12/16/48 .11/ / 4/ 49 34 34 thi. mi. E of of Jct. jet. US US 160-350 160-350 4/49 Nor 29/ 51 N of US US 160, 160, between between Sall Salt and and T1•i11chem Trinchera Cr Cr 12/ 12/29/51 N 1/ 17/ 52 N of US US 160, 160, between between Alkali Alkali and and Trincbera Trinchera 1/17/52 BlaoJ< l/ 19/52 Black ~Cesa, Mesa, 8 mi. S S o[ of Kim 1/19/52 Avishapa Mgmt. Area, E or Aguilar 1/ 64 Apishapa Area, of Aguilar 1/ 7/ 7/64 ,, ,, I1// 8/ 64 8/64 1/ 68 1/ 8/ 8/68 Lo gan 1'amarack l2/ 16/ 47 Tamarack Ranch Ranch S S of of CrO~k Crook 12/16/47 Logan l2/ 19/ 47 12/19/47 ~I esn r,; 1/ 20/ 48 l\'Iesa N of of Fruita Fruita on on Gar Gar Me.Sa Mesa 1/20/48 1/ 1/ 7/49 7/49 LZ/ 21/ 49 12/21/49 2/ 50 2/ 5/ 5/50 2/ 11/ 50 2/11/50 NW 1/ NW of of Grand Grand Jun,ction.., Junction, Loma Lorna 1/ 8/68 8/68 irontrose Parodo>< 1/ Montrose Paradox Valley Valley 1/ 8/64 8/64 1/ 15/ 64 1/15/64 SW l\' l organ 2/ / 66 Morgan SW and and SE: SE of of Brush Brush 2/ )1/66 i,:,rtrem~ Otero l2/ 12/ 47 Otero Extreme SW SW comer corner of county county 12/12/47 1/ 19/ 48 1/19/48 " Prowers 18 Prowers 18 mi. mL SE SE of of tJamar Lamar 2/ 26/ 51 2/26/51 mi. SW SW o! of Latnar Lamar 30 mL 2/ 12/ 52 2/12/52 Lamar .Lamar 11/ 19/53 11/19/53 Pueblo Teller Reservoir Pueblo Teller Re-servotr 1/15/64 1/ 15/ 64 Rio Rio Blanco Blanco Artesia Artesia 2/ 2/ 2/66 2/ 66 Rio Grande Grande S S oi of Monte Monte Vista Vista 1/20/66 Rio 1/ 20/ 66 Vicinity of Saguach~ Saguache Saguache Saguache Vi cinity of l2/30/ 4R 12/30/48 12/20/49 12/20/49 12/28/49 12/28/ 49 23 ,n mi. W or of Saguache Saguache 23 [. w 11/24/ 53 11/24/53 3/ 3/ 3/55 3/ 55 " " 88 mi. mi. SE SE 0£ of vrna Villa Grove Grove 12/11/53 12/11/ 53 12/ 4/ 54 4/54 Washington 9 mi. mi. S S of of Woodrow Woodrow 12/10/47 .12/10/ ~7 1.'uma 20 mt. mi. NW NW or of Wray Yuma 12/27/50 12/ 27/ 50 10 mi. N N of Wr~y Wray 10 1/ 51 1/ 9/ 9/51 of Joes, Joes, E E of of Colo. 69 59 N of 2/ 5/ 5/52 2/ 52 10 10 r II 11 4 11 11 10 22 22 55 I1 66 66 55 77 II 11 JO 10 l2 12 44 55 1 77 22 55 22 33 99 55 77 77 99 15 33 18 18 17 17 55 6 3 35 35 16 16 s9 14 14 12 12 25 25 !2 12 55 10 10 10 10 55 44 35 12 12 15 15 19 19 66 11 \9 19 22 14. 14 I11 I 11 11 00 77 00 12 12 11 3 25 25 11 11 16 16 00 00 10 10 44 )2 12 21 21 10 10 55 88 55 10 10 88 25 25 18 18 17 17 26 26 23 23 '77 16 16 16 16 .33 16 16 12 12 44 44 99 3 18 18 00 11 14 14 21 21 99 10 10 55 4 2:i e6 8 l2 12 10 10 44 66 2 l1 88 33 4 1 3 1 1 3 2 11 11 a3 13 13 44 12 12 99 16 16 2 9 55 11 66 44 33 I1 44 44 50 50 45 45 lS 15 39 39 33 33 58 58 17 17 13 13 l<i 16 28 28 11 11 14 14 71 71 33 33 43 43 23 23 11 11 66 56 15 15 40 17 17 17 17 11 11 22 22 20 20 48 48 25 25 25 25 49 59 59 l19 ~ 44 44 38 38 12 12 24 21 20 20 16 16 2B 28 7 12 lt 24 24 77 23 23 99 18 18 11 11 21 21 Be1·d First. lor County Herd Status Status (or for County First Total Total flarvest. Harvest for County Bef,ore 1968 Hunting (1945-1967) Hunting (1945-1967) Before First First Rele~se <Sp,.ing) Season Sucks Does Fawns Total (Spring) Bucks Does Fawns Total Release Season n,one none none none 1959 u:nk.nOWfl unknown unknown unknown 8 none none n·one none 129 172 172 261 91 1.1.r,known unknown 300 1945 1961 1961 1959 1957 115 19 1945 1053 1953 139 75 14 14 228 230 242 81 107 87 17 17 18 18 329 359 397 75 652 345 1,525 1,525 582 69 53 1,066 2,180 2,160 303 53 10 10 7 5 1952 1952 793 358 42 l.193 1,193 !1one none 1957 1957 113 35 7 155 none none none none 165 165 584 368 .3~0 350 1945 $96 596 224 19 19 839 \.l,nknown unknown 1945 12 12 0 24 3 0 none 11:ono 1962 1962 1958 1958 1958 1958 2 370 872 480 4 0 74 l.426 1,426 u1nknown unknown r.ione none 319 450 723 62 02 343 1964 1904 52 2 1,118 1,118 74 H 40 74 unknown \lll\knOwn 1945 1045 2~ 23 10 10 30 2 �Outdoor Facts Facts Outdoor· PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO PUBLISHED COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFN ATURALRESOURCES DIVISION GAME,, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DI VISION OF OF GAME ~' if I , ',' ,," , ' Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet Number 71 Number71 ANTELOPE AND NET-WIRE NET-WIRE FENCES!] FENCES!l ANTELOPE Pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) are Pronghorn americana) are found on the western plains, typically found western high plains, typically in the spaces. Through the years ancestral wide open spaces. years most ancestral important for domestic antelope range has become important domestic livestock pasturage pasturage and of the livestock and production. Growth of livestock industry livestock industry long ago induced a highly effective cattle movements device for controlling controlling sheep and cattle wire 'fences! fences ! Recent management practices, practices, principrincirotation grazing systems, have greatly greatly increased increased pally rotation grazing systems, the number of of fences by sub-dinding sub-divIding the open range pronghorns. The antelope crawled crawled under occupied by pronghorns. barbed wire on cattle barbed wire fences on cattle range, butfoundnet-wire butfound net-wire on sheep range effective barriers. barriers. fences on straight fence line. The "Powder River and in a straight "Powder River pass," cattle guardguard-like structure cut in pass," a standard standard cattle like structure half (6 (6 feet by 6 feet), was placed in the fence line (Fig. 1). 1). "Paul's "Paul's pass," pass," a over a pit 2 feet deep {Fig. rectangular pen (50 (50 feet by 100 100 feet), was constructed constructed rectangular periphery of of the pass, in the fence line (Fig. 2). The periphery pass, In 1964, 1964, construction construction of nwnerous numerous sheep-tight, sheep-tight, 42 to 44 inches high in northwoven-wire fences 42 northwestern western Colorado caused concern among some local Game, people and all field personnel personnel of the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Parks Division, a reaction reaction that resulted resulted Fish from observations observations of antelope walking parallel parallel to the fences looking for new routes to long-used new travel travel routes long-used waterholes and wintering wintering grounds. Many Many animals, animals, waterholes trying to force force their their way way under or jump over the trying fences, became entangled and died. Intensive study of antelope and various various fence types Wyoming in 1963. 1963. After consulting began in Wyoming consulting Wyoming Wyoming personnel, Fish and Parks Parks Divipersonnel, the Colorado Game, Fish sion and and the Bureau of Land Management began evalBureau of of various various structures structures in sheepsheep-tight uation of tight fences facilitate antelope movements. movements. Findings intended to facilitate are outlined in the following. are Fig. 1. 1. Powder River River pass pass placed in a fence near near D. Bear) Sunbeam, Colorado. (Photo by George D. METHODSANDRESULTS METHODS AND RESULTS Several crossing crossing devices were constructed constructed and Several tested in Moffat County in 1967, 1967. These fence designs, designs, tested Moffat County described below, were evaluated on basis of track track described on the basis by counts around each installation, installation, supplemented supplemented by direct observation observation of of livestock livestock and antelope. The direct "antelope pass" pass" involved involved an offset structure structure of one"antelope bars having overall overall dimensions of 4 feet by inch steel steel bars two railroad railroad ties 4 feet. This device was placed on' on two ties earth ramp at each end. The placement placement was with an earth tested both by locating it in an offset in the fence line tested YContribution from Federal Aid Project Project W-40-R Ycontribution from Federal W- 40-R Fig. 2. Paul's constructed in a fence near Paul's pass pass constructed near Maybell, Colorado. Colorado. (Photo by George George D. Bear) Maybell, Bear) �three-strand barbed wire fence, was capable capable of a three-strand barbed wire under. cattle but allowing antelope to crawl crawl under. holding cattle A 26-inch 26-inch net-wire net-wire fence bisected bisected the center center of the enclosed area, and it contained sheep but was low low enclosed area, for antelope antelope to jump. enough for antelope pass pass was tthe best type of structure structure The antelope he best antelope movements movements across across fence lines. lines. The for antelope number of animals crossing crossing was nearly nearly doubled by number of animals by placing the pass 1). Of Of antelope placing pass in an offset (Table 1). Table 1. Antelope and livestock livestock moveme,;i.t movement around and Table across various various types types of structures. structures. across Species, Year ,iii1nd and Sl,ied.. l!li, Y~or Type of of Type Structure Sl!:UC.tu.re. Number of of t;1.1!2lber Number of Number: Crossing Ctonl..Qg Attempts AUomRt!! Animals A~.im.tlEI Percent fle1:c.m, Crossing C:1:"0s.aing Crossing Cl"O?l.dng 66 66 ]□ 30 100 206 38 56 9 2 30 0o 0o 200 ioo 250 250 I 1 1 J 60 iiO Q 0 Antelope ti ~ ---m7 7 in Mf~~c:. offset -----Xntelope A"t"'lop~ Pass l1G:is- J:n Antelope Pass Ant~Lopo. 12DS'& Paults P.a&s Pass Paul's Powder River Pass eoW.~r Rive?: Pa;1;1s 1968 1965 -Antelope in oHHt offset - Ant'elap e Pass f:J~l!l i.n Paults Pass F'au l- 's .Piit~a: Powder River J,taslii Pass P9W[ie , Rlve!r 58 2 Sheep Sheep 1967 !:ill -Antelope Pass in ofiJe.c: offset Ance!cpe l!:t~i Antelope Pass Antelape Pa-lilii Paul's s Ps..ss Pass P.iu1} Powder J?owder River R:Lvey Pass Po1ss 1968 1965 Pass in in offset ----:\ntelope Antel ope Pni:;tl'i of.hat Paull Pass Pa1,1l ' s ;f'au Powder l?owde.t: River k.i.v1:1: Pass Pas:li 370 37/J 285 2BS 360 0o 339 JJ9 981 35 35 70 70 2!, 20 5 19 8 J1 o 0 0 0 J. 0 o 0 l, 0 Modification of antelope passes not only reduced reduced Modification antelope passes the number number of livestock crossings, crossings, but nearly nearly elimielimiof livestock nated antelope crossings. Of Of 200 200 antelope antelope that apnated antelope crossings. proached the passes, crossed. No cattle, cattle, proached passes, only one crossed. sheep, or horses horses crossed. Powder River sheep, crossed. At Powder River passes, passes , no livestock livestock or antelope crossed 1968. c.r ossed in 1968. Only slight slight changes were were noted in the number number of Only sheep crossing crossing Paul;s Paul's passes passes in 1968. 1968. antelope and sheep Of 250 250 antelope, antelope, only seven crossed both barrie1·s. barriers. A Of seven crossed considerable number of animals animals crossed crossed the outer considerable cross over center fence. Of Of fence but did not cross over the center sheep, of 981 981 crossed, s heep, only one of crossed, and no cattle cattle or horses crossed crossed any of pass structures. structures. horses of the pass 4-mile section section of of 32-inch 32-inch fence was also also evaluA 4-mile evaluated, 26-inch net wire inches off the ated, this this being of 26-inch wire 2 inches strand of barbed barbed wire wire 4 inches inches above ground, with a strand wire. yearling antelope easily the net wi re. Adult and yearling antelope easily crossed this this fence to obtain water from crossed from tthe he Yampa River during during summer summer months (Table 2). Fawns did River not cross during the period September. cross during period July through through September. Table 2.fObservations 2.!Observations of antelope crossing crossing the 32-inch 32-inch fence in Moffat County, Colorado. Month Bucks Does Fawns Percentage of l'il!lf'~rnt.A,g,t 'Df Antelope Crossing A~t~1ope Ctoo~ Number !fot Not Cr01&rlna Crossing tlw:ibar. Number Crossing Total Bucks Does Fawns Total 12 tl 13 13 Cattle Ca.U\f!. --r%7 ---ur1 -Antelope Pass in offcii!!t offset ----Xt1t <:lOt'I!!: Pua Antelope Pass Antalope PUS Paul's Pass .eau] 'a P•u Powder Pass Powd <: c River RiWt Pa8:. 1968 l965 Pass in offset --Antelope Antclcp@- Pu.atn offset Paul's Pass P.1u.l' s i'a ss Powder ,R.i River Pass l!'owdc.r ver Pau 11, 74 53 138 138 11 u 202 202 135 1.35 123 12J 2 0o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 July Jul,y 0 August 0 p September 0 October 10 17 ti 11 IL 38 12 " 15 59 20 '" 21 '-' Bucks !IUcu ·~ "" .. Does Fawns rlf',,~ ~ Total 'tot-11 88 100 LOO s, 57 100 100 100 LOO ,., 100 !DO . 67 100 -· 100 LOO 97 42 42 74 ,~ Horses Horse'!, ----r967 no obnrvatiot1sobservations --m-1 -- no 1968 1368 -Antelope in off!iet offset ~ nt.elo·p e Pass Pasl!I in Paul's Pass Paul':; Par.G ,, 8 0 0 that approached passes, 58 58 percent percent crossed crossed approached offset passes, successfully; however, 19 percent percent of the sheep sheep and successfully; however, 19 3 percent percent of the cattle cattle also crossed. No cattle, cattle, 2 perperalso crossed. cent of the antelope, antelope, and 1 percent percent of the sheep sheep crossed the Paul's Paul's passes. passes. There movement crossed There was no movement across Powder River River passes, either by livestock livestock or across Powder passes, either antelope. antelope. reduce In 1968, antelope antelope passes passes were were modified to reduce the number number of livestock livestock crossings. crossings. Dimensions Dimensions of the tbe pass were increased increased to 6 feet feet by 4 feet, feet, and height off off pa.ss were the ground was increased 15 incbes. inches. All increased from from 6 to 15 passes were were set offsets {Fig. (Fig. 3). The passes set in fence-line fence - line offsets Powder River River pass Paul's pass pass were Powder pass and Paul's were not changed design. in design. They would follow the adults frantiadults to the fence, then frantically run up and down down tthe cally he fence line until the adults adults returned. During October, 42 percent percent of of the fawns returned. October, 42 seen approaching approaching the fence jumped over over with no apseen parent difficulty. difficulty. Antelope moved out of the area parent area by November, eliminating eliminating Ol:Jportunity opportunity ffor obtaining late late November; or obtaining information. fall information. Observations indicat indicated that the 32-inch Observations ed that 32-inch fence effectively contained this was fectively contained cattle cattle and sheep, sheep, and this confirmed by the rancher rancher grazing livestock on the confirmed grazing livestock allotment. allotment. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION Spillet (1967) concluded from from work in Spillet et al. (1967) Wyoming types offered offered the Wyoming that the following fence types least interference movements, yet yet proleast interference with antelope movements, pro- �60 pass, but 60 percent percent of: af the antelope antelape crossed crassed a 4-foot 4-faat pass, only anly 33 percent percent crossed crassed the passes passes when when they were were increased increased in width to to' 6 feet feet.. Adult animals animals are are hesihesitant to to' cross crass these these structures structures and, or ar course, caurse, fawns are to use are still still less less likely to' use them. Spillet et et aLl. al. (1967) (1967) recommended recammended the use offences affences not nat exceeding exceeding 32 inches inches in height. Data from fram the Division usable sian study indicated indicated such such fences fences are are generally generally usable by yearling yearling and adult animals, animals, and fawns started started crossing crassing them by October. Octaber. It appeared appeared that that fawns may readily readily cross crass them by December December when the winter winter migration migratian begins. begins. It is is believed believed that that 32-inch 32-inch fences on provide less to antean antelope antelape range pravide less interference interference to' antelope lape movements mavements than a higher higher fence with antelope antelape passes passes installed installed in it. it. Sundstrom Sundstram (1968), (1968), in study of af water water consumption cansumptian by antelope, antelape, found faund that fawns began drinking drinking in August. Therefore, Therefare, water water developdevelapments should. shauld be made in an area area prior priar to to' or ar at the time of, af, fen,ce fence construction canstructian to to' provide pravide fawns with water water until they learn learn to to' cross crass fence barriers. barriers. Paul's Paul's pass pass should shauld be given further further consideration cansideratian and evaluation. noticeable increase evaluatian. There There was a naticeable increase of af activity activity around araund these these passes passes the second secand year. year. Larger Larger versions versians of af the pass pass are are currently currently being evaluated evaluated Wyaming. in Wyoming. Fig. 3. 3. Antelope Antelape pass pass set set in in an offset affset in in the fence fence line. (Photo (Phata by George Gearge D. D. Bear) Bear) vided the requirements requirements of af sheep management: (1) (1) 32inch net-wire inch net with aa barbed net-wire fence; (2) (2) 2626-inch barbed wire 4 inches above abave it; and (3) (3) standard standard cattle cattle guards. guards. They stated A fence 32 stated that: '' "A 32 inches inches high is apparently the maximum that most mast antelope antelape will readily readily crass. Standard cattle cattle guards guards will satisfactorily satisfactarily perpercross. mit the movement mavement of af adult and yearling yearling antelope antelape if they aare r e placed so So' that that they can be readily readily located. lacated. A corner carner location lacatian for far cattle cattle guards guards is more mare readily readily A found faund and and crossed crassed by antelope." antelape." In Colorado, Calarada, it was found faund that the use of af artificial artificial corners ope passes. carners (offsets) (affsets) increased increased the use of af antel antelape passes. However, Hawever, these these findings differ differ from fram those thase of af the Wyoming Wyaming study study in in that antelope antelape did not nat readily readily cross crass aa 6-foot 6-faat cattle cattle guard guard or ar antelope antelape pass. pass. Approximately Appraximately At the present present time time there salutian At there is nO'clear-cut no clear- cut solution for far getting getting antelope antelape across acrass livesto·ck livestock fences. fences. The 32inch maximum height for wire fences partly far netnet-wire fences only anly partly alleviates alleviates tbe the problem. prablem. Before Befare constructing canstructing new new an a:I1telope antelape ranges, agencies involved invalved fences on ranges, the agencies shauld give give careful careful consideration cansideratian to to' the detrimental detrimental should effect effect of af fences fences as well as as to to' their their benefits. benefits. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED J., J.B. J. B. Low, Law, and D. D. Sill. 1967. 1967. Livestock Livestack Spillet, J. J.,. fences pronghorn antelope fences -- how haw they influence influence prangharn antelape movements. mavements. utah utah State Univ., Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. •470. 79 NO'.470. 79 p. Sundstrom, Water consumption pronghorn Sundstram, C. 1968. 1968. Water cansumptian by prangharn antelape and distribution distributian related related to to' water water in Wyaantelope Wyoming's Red Red Desert. Desert. Proc. Prac. 3rd 3rd Antelope Antelape States States ming's Workshop. Warkshap. p. 39-46. 39-'46. George Gearge D. Bear Bear Wildlife Researcher Researcher Octaber, 1969 1969 October, ��Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED UBLI BY TH THE r- d, n PA COLORADO PARKS OEP DEPT.. ~ CO ORAOO GAME, AM , FISH and Number 72 Number 72 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet TRAPS FOR CONTROLLING MAGPIES TRAPS FOR CONTROLLING MAGPIES traps effective effective in controlling controlling magpies magpies where Two traps where they have become become a problem, problem, both easy and inexpeninexpenconstruct, are are described described in the following: sive to construct, CONSTRUCTION TRAP CONSTRUCTION Trap Trap Number 1 Lumber 4's 10 10 feet long; three Lumber - Ten 2 x 4's three 2 x 4's 4's 12 feet long, one 2 x 4 14 14 feet long, and six six 1 x 4's 12 4's are for the 12 feet long. Eight of the 10-foot 2 x 4's 4's are the sides 1),, two 10-foot 2 x 4's 4's are are for the ladder, sides (Fig. 1) ladder, 12-foot 2 x 4's 4's are are cut in half to make the and two 12-foot four 6-foot pieces corners. One four 6-foot pi eces for for the corners. One 12-foot 2 x 4 are cut to fit the slope and the and one 14-foot 2 x 4 are door, and two 14-inch 14-inch pieces pieces are are fitted side door, fitted on each side six 12-foot 1 x 4's are of the magpie entrance. entrance. The six 4's are used for bracing bracing and the door. Nails - One One pound of poultry Nails poultry netting netting staples, staples, 2 pounds of of 16-box, and 2 pounds of 10-box cementcementcoated nails. nails. coated Wire Sixty feet Wire - Si>..1:y feet of No. 9 wire wire for for the funnel funn el in the center trap. center of the trap. Netting feet of poultry netting 72 Netting - Sixty linear linear feet poultry netting inches high., high, either either 1-inch I-inch or 1.5-inch 1.5-inch mesh. mesh. Cut No. inches 9 wire wire in 2-foot 2-foot lengths lengths, bend about 1 inch at end of used for each wire wire to permit permit driving driving into 2 x 4's 4's used for the entrance. Place Place wires wires 2 inches apart around around the outentrance. inches apart entrance and use staples to side edges of the entrance use nails nails or staples entrance is 12 12 x 14 inches at hold them in place. place. The entrance 14 inches the top and 15 15 x 17 17 inches inches at the bottom. Ladder - For For rungs on the ladder ladder and Willows for Ladder cover, 7 inches inches above the entrance, straight entrance, use use straight on the cover, willows about the size size of a broom broom handle. handle. Space inches. On of the ladder ladder nail a rrungs ungs 1.5 inches. On both ends of piece poles netting 9 x 14 inches. inches. Also, cut two poles piece of netting inches in diameter 10 feet long lemg for perches 2 inches diam eter and 10 perches in trap. the trap. Trap Number 2 Trap Lumber Thirteen 2 x 4's 4's 8 feet Lumber - Thirteen feet long, four four 2 x 4's 4's 10 feet 12 feet long, two 1 x 2's feet long, two 2 x 4's 4's 12 2's 8 10 10 ffeet eet long, four 1 x 4's 4's 8 feet long, and one 1 x 4 10 feet 4's are feet long. Eight of the 8 foot 2 x 4's are for for the top 8-foot 2 x 4's 4'8 are are for horiaand nd bottom (Fig. 2), two 8-foot horiboards rest, rest, and zontal braces braces on which the the perch perch boards two 8-foot 8-foot 2 xX 4'5 4's are are for for the top door jamb. jamb. One 8-foot 2 x 4 is 4-foot sections sections and used is cut into two 4-foot used 8-foot for side door Four 10-foot 2 x 4's 4's are are used for the side door jamb. jamb. Four used sides and upright center braces. for the sides upright center braces. Two 12-foot 2 x 4's 4's are are cut into sixteen sixteen 18-inch 18-inch lengths lengths and used used 2's. are are for diagonal corner corner braces, braces, two 8-foot 8-foot 1 x 2's used 4's and used for for perch perch boards·, boards, and four four 8-foot 8-foot 1 x 4's one 10-foot 1 x 4 are are used side-door used for the top and side-door frames. frames. Nails netting staples, staples, 2 Nails - One pound of poultry poultry netting cementpounds of of 16-box, and 2 pounds of 10-box cementcoated nails. nails. coated Iron Rod Rod - The entrance entrance is made of 1/ 1/4-inch iron Iron 4-inch iron form a funnel. The two upright upright bars bars in rod w~lded to form front of the entrance entrance are are 3,5 3.5 inches inches apart apart (Fig. 2) 2) to front prevent getting the bait. small dog can prevent dogs from from getting bait. A small its head between its shoulders shoulders cannot get its between the bars, bars, but its enter; thus, the 9-inch 9-inch length length of the funnel will not enter; thus permit loss. When When constructing constructing the framework, framework, permit bait bait loss. nail the board entrance rests rests so that that it board on which the entrance will over 2 inches inches above the ground. The will not be over entrance must must be kept close close to the ground so so magpies magpies entrance difficulty. When can enter enter without difficulty. \Vhen installing installing the entrance, netting 9 inches diameter trance, cut a hole in the netting inches in diameter upright brace, brace, then push the at the bottom bottom next to the upright small end of the through from from the outside small the entrance entrance through outside ROOF ~~RC~~ \',.f" .~ Is-.,o APNlT 00£ £/<CH CORK£F,j ON BbTroN I"M,' HASP (Drawing by Roland C. Kufeld) Diagram of Trap Trap NO.1 Fig. 1. Diagram No. 1 �w~re it securely securely to the netting. and wfre Fifty-five linear linear feet of Netting - Fifty-five of poultry netting netting 60 inches inches high, either either 1-inch or 1.5-inch 1.5-inch mesh. 60 Other Materials Materials - Four two hasps hasps for Fou1· hinges and two the top and side doors. doors. Ho.sp I, <5'------_-2'-----..1 .*-~1 L,----·::Jl '" t::::=J..l "'LJ.1 Tkg-.....j TL.9--l Kufeld) (Drawing by Roland C. Kufeld) Diagram of Trap Trap No. No. 2 Fig. 2. Diagram TRAP OPERATION OPERATION TRAP Setting Setting traps are similar in operation. operation. They Both traps are very very similar should be placed set placed where magpies magpies ,frequent. frequent. Never set magpies the trap trap close to 'buildings, buildings, even even though magpies are near such premises. best to set set the trap trap are near such premises. It is best where the birds birds will have it to themselves themselves with no where interference from animals or human activity, activity. Cover interference from animals entire top of trap trap with hay or straw, held down down by the entire or straw slabs. Do Do not cover cover any part ladder limbs or slabs. part of of the ladder on Trap Trap No.1, on Trap Trap No. 1, or any part part of the top door on NO.2. small, brushy trees about 12 12 feet tall tall No. 2. Cut four, small, brushy trees trap so that and nail them around tthe he top edge of the trap magpies will have an attractive magpies attractive place to alight. Lay of brush brush on on three three sides of the trap. trap. Leave the plenty of sides of fairly clear clear and open to tthe south side fairly he sun, allowing birds to see the bait easily. The entrance on the birds bait easily. entrance on Trap NO.2 Trap No. 2 should face south. Baiting Baiting fresh meat for bait. bait. Coyote, house cat, rabbit rabbit, Use fresh other wild or domestic domestic animals animals serve serve well, well. Place Place and other directly under the funnel in Trap Trap No.1, bait directly No. 1, and just just inside the entrance entrance in Trap Trap NO.2. For best best results inside No. 2. For results the trap prebaited for several several days prior prior trap should be prebaited attempting a catch. Bait the traps to attempting traps and leave the side doors, No.2,2, open for side doors, and the top gate of Trap Trap ~o. several days to induce ready ready entrance departure several entrance and departure of magpies. magpies. Always add plenty of fresh of fresh meat to the After old bait bait when the top gate is closed closed for a catch. After attempting another another each catch prebait prebait again before before attempting catch. It is not necessary necessary to use decoys in the traps, traps, since attraction is birds birds that that enter enter and feed since the best best attraction prebaiting and iater return with othe1· other magpies during prebaitin_g later return to feed in the trap trap.. Disposal of Birds Birds Disposal When destroy all magpies taken, When a catch is made destroy taken, pick up large large feathers feathers and bury along with the and pick birds. birds in or around the trap. trap. birds. Never leave dead birds doors open when when traps are not in use Always tie the doors traps are to prevent prevent dogs, cats, cats, or other other animals animals from from getting trap and starving. starving. into the trap Effectiveness of Traps Effectiveness Traps As many as 105 105 magpies magpies were were taken in one catch catch trap; and 250 250 magpies magpies were were taken in 65 days with one trap; one trap traps are are with one trap without moving it. Both traps adaptable adaptable to'varying to varying sites sites and cover conditions. Kufeld Roland C. C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher Resp.archer OctOber, 1969 1969 October, �Outdoor F acts Facts PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO PUBLISHED THE COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES '" q ::-:. II. , ,. \ ' DIVISION OF GAME. FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS D IVISION oFGAME. Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Number 73 Number TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING POTENTIALLY TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING POTENTIALLY CRITICAL DEER IDGHWAY HIGHWAY CROSSINGSa CROSSINGS a CRITICAL DEER in regions regions frequented Highways in frequented by deer deer sometimes create create situations situations hazardous hazardous to deer sometimes deer and motorists. motorists. This circumstance that circumstance requires requires that people responsible responsible for deer management management and people highway safety be able to pinpoint pinpoint potential potential highway crossings prior prior to highway highway construction. construction. deer crossings this end, end. certain certain basic information information must must To this taken to first be obtained obtained before action can be taken prevent reduce deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accidents?To accidents?To this prevent or reduce end, certain information must certain basic information must first first be be obtained before action taken to prevent prevent obtained action can be taken or reduce reduce deer-vehicle This paper paper deer-vehicle accidents. accidents. This outlines procedures procedures for obtaining outlines obtaining the information required. required. mation DEER DENSITIES DENSITIES ADJACENT TO HIGHWAYS DEER ADJACENT TOIDGHWAYS density is an important important factor affecting affecting Deer density deer-vehicle accidents. accidents. In general, deer deer-vehicle general , as deer increase in number, number, deer-vehicle deer-vehicle collisions collisions beincrease occurrence. Estimates Estimates frequent in occurrence. come more frequent (counts) adjacent adjacent to highways highways should should of deer (counts) reference to marked marked distances be tabulated tabulated in reference distances along the highway highway in question. alo ng the question. Mile intervals intervals can be marked marked with with reflective reflective house house numbers can numbers reflectors nailed to posts and red reflectors posts or placed on laths woven into fences (Fig. 1). If a more laths refined tabulation is necessary necessary mile intervals intervals refin ed tabulation may subdivided into quarter-mile quarter-mile sections. m ay be subdivided delineate more precisely precisely where where deer This may delineate occur near near the highway. Reflectors Reflectors and numthe highway. should be perpendicular perpendicular to highway bers should highway surreflection of vehicle headface to preclude preclude reflection lights; otherwise otherwise they might might be hazardous hazardous to lights· drivers or tempt tempt them the light drivers them to appropriate appropriate the light themselves. During counts, reflectors rreflectors efl ectors themselves. counts, reflectors and numbers numbers may readily be located with spotlights. In order order to cooperate cooperate fully with other other lights. state agencies agencies it is necessary necessary to check with the state local highway highway maintenance maintenance foreman, foreman, Division reflector of Highways, Highways, for permission permission to make reflector installations. installations. Contribution of Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. a Contribution W-38-R. b Other Other methods methods of preventing preventing deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accidents accidents are being being tested this project. proj ecL are tested in this Fig. 1. Flg. Reflective house house number number and reflector. Reflective and red red reflector. The number number of deer present near The present along or near highways can best be determined night, highways determined at night, using spotlights (Fig. 2) 2) operated operated by two using two spotlights persons driven slowly up persons while in a vehicle vehicle driven the highway highway and down the the other. other. one side of the Both spotlights spotlights should should be used used to count count the Both the right side of the highway, not only better right the highway, better to illuminate the the area area to be counted counted but to avoid illuminate shining light directly toward toward oncoming oncoming shining the light traffic. counts per per month month are recommended. recommended. Two counts comparison with four or five counts counts per per In comparison �HIGHWAY 13 SPOTUGHT DEER COUNTS SPOTLIGHT 1968 1988 • • --~ IO"'O"I .•• cou"llpe',"OM~. ,-•''""""'•.,...-o o ,".ocounll,.,""'"l" tJ ......... ... - . o 200 . 11 ll ~ , L....Ja...L......&..J_....._.LL___,__._,.___.L..L.J.__.____,.__._...__.L.o...~Month Fig. 3. Comparison Comparison of data data based based on on four four or five five counts counts Fig. per month month with with data data based based on on two counts per month month per counts per on Highway 13 during during 1968. 1968. fn In _general general peaks peaks of on Highway deer density density based on two counts approximate those deer based on counts approximate those based or five five counts. based on on four four or counts. spotlights (G.E. (G.E. #4537 #4537 aircraft aircraft landing, landing, Fig. 2. Two spotlights candles, 100w 13v, beam beam spread spread to 10•). 10°). 200,000 ft. candles, month, two counts, month, counts, at at bi-weekly bi-weekly intervals, intervals, proved sufficient indicate deer deer densiproved sufficient to indicate ties (Fig. (Fig. 3). ties In spotlight spotlight counts counts deer deer seen seen on each each marked marked In mile or quarter quarter mile mile of highway highway should should be mile recorded by the driver. The The passenger passenger should should recorded the driver. freed of recording recording and other duties duties so that be freed and other that he may concentrate concentrate entirely he may entirely on observing observing and and enumerating, covering the entire illuminated illuminated enumerating, covering the entire area. animals whose whose eyes reflect reflect light light area. Also, animals long distances distances should should be included included if they they at long are judged judged to be deer. Movement, behavior, behavior, deer. Movement, other characteristics characteristics may may often often be used used as or other identifying criteria. Eye reflections reflections uncertainly uncertainly identifying crite1ia. identified should should be discarded. discarded. identified The early early hours hours of darkness darkness have have proved proved The best spotlighting because because deer are most most best for spotlighting deer are active at this this time (Progulske and Duerre, 1964). active time (Progulske andDuerre,1964). Analysis of Colorado Colorado State State Patrol Patrol accident accident reAnalysis ports support this finding. About About 48 48 percent percent ports support this finding. 1,624 deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accidents, 1965 1965-1967, of 1,624 accidents, -1967, occurred during during the the first hours after after first three thl·ee hours occmTed sunset. sunset. Rain and and snow snow may reduce reduce visibility, visibility, and and Rain counts should should not made under under such such concounts not be made ditions. Ten Ten of 47 counts along along two highway highway 47 counts ditions. areas, taken taken dming during rain rain and snow snow (falling (falling at areas, least one-third one-third of the the count count time) time),, resulted resulted in least 41 percent percent fewer fewer deer deer than than counts counts during during 41 relatively fair weather. weather. c relatively Fair weather counts, and those made during inclement c F air weather counts, and those made during inclement conditions, were conducted throughout the year, year, conditions, were conducted throughout the seasonal deer deer densities not a factor. densities were were not factor. so seasonal The presence or absence absence of moonlight moonlight is The presence important factor factor (Progulske (Progulske andDuerre, and Duerre, also an important 1964). Their Their findings findings indicate indicate that that on on certain certain 1964). winter nights nights with with bright bright moonlight moonlight deer deer are winter are more difficult difficult to count they give give little little more count because because they attention to spotlights spotlights under under such, such conditions. conditions. attention Occasional noise noise (honking (honking horn, hO'rn, yelling, etc.)) yelling, etc. Occasional helps reluctance of the the animals animals to helps overcome overcome reluctance show their their eyes. show indication of highway highway crossings can be An indication crossings can obtained if deer deer counts counts are kept separate separate for obtained are kept each side of the the road. road. Most deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accidents result result where many deer deer occur most of dents where many occur most the time time on both both sides sides of the highway. For For the the highway. example, the second second half half of mile 2 and example, along along the the the Highway 82, 82, the the first first quarter quarter of mile 3, Highway 42 percent of the the counts during the the peak peak acci42 percent counts during dent period period (January-April, 1968) showed showed deer deer dent (January-April, 196S) both road road borders. borders. Here, 36 deer were were on both Here, 36 deer killed during during peak peak hours. hours. Along Along another area, another area killed the last last 3 quarters quarters of mile 7, Highway Highway 82, deer the 82, deer were seen on the highway highway 3 were seen on both both sides sides of the percent during the the same same period. the time time during per:od. percent of the About the the same same total total number number of deer deer were About were seen here here as during during the the first first count, count, when they seen when they were only only on on one one side. As a result, result, no deer deer were were killed during during peak peak accident accident hours hours during during were killed early counts. deer on only only one early counts. Many deer one side of the the highway highway indicate indicate that animals are are that the the animals not crossing. crossing. not VEHICLE-KILLED DEER VEIDCLE-KILLED DEER number of deer deer killed vehicles The number killed by vehicles indicates the location location of crossings crossings indicates precisely precisely the �or attempts In general, attempts to cross. cross. general, crossing crossing importance importance is implied implied by the the number number of deer deer killed. The killed. The mostimportantcrossingonHighway most important crossing on Highway 82 82 is along along miles miles 2 and 3 where, where, dming during 1968, 1968, 60 60 vehicle vehicle accidents accidents fatal to deer deer were were recorded, recorded, an average average of 30 30 per per mile. Vehicle Vehicle kills should should be tallied tallied for each mar'ked marked highway highway distance distance by inspecting inspecting as frefrequently A d<1ily quently as possible. possible. daily check during during morning morning hours hours reduces reduces the the possibility possibility of dead dead deer deer being being moved moved by motorists motorists or hunters, hunters, because because most most deer deer are are killed killed during during the the night. night. Deer kill data data for Highway Highway 82 82 show show that that over over 52 52 percent percent of the the fatalities fatalities occwTed occurred between between 6:00-10:00 p.m. 6:00-10:00p.m. In determining locadetermining relatively relatively accmatc accurate kill killlocations, tions, tenths tenths of miles miles may be read read from the the vehicle's e.g., 0.1 vehicle's odometer odometer and recorded recorded ((e.g., 0.1 mile N. of marker marker 38) 38).. DEE!i DEER CDUNT COUNT H IGHWAY 82 t1IGt1WAY 82 1968 1968 Fig. high deer both Fig. 4. 4. Areas Areas of high deer density density adjacent adjacent lo to both sides sides of approximately approximately 18.5 18.5 miles miles of Highway Highway 82 south south of Glenwood Glenwood Spdngs. Springs. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION DEER- KILL DEER-KILL "' HIGHWAY82 9 68 HIGHWAY82 11968 ZS Both Both count count and and number number of dead deer deer per mile or quarter quarter mile may be graphed graphed to show whether whether kills kills are bunched bunched or scattered scattered nniformly uniformly A graph along along the the highway. highway. graph based based on the the accumulated accumulated total total of 47 47 counts counts adjacent adjacent to Highway Highway 82 82 south south of Glenwood Glenwood Springs Springs showed showed three Fig. 4,). three areas areas of high high deer deer density density ((Fig. 4). I-IowHowever, vehicle kill at these these three three areas areas was was ev er, vehicle different (Fig. 5), the the most most noticeable noticeable being being different the absence absence of numerous numerous fatalities fatalities along along mile mile the 7 -where where the the highest highest deer deer count count was was recorded. recorded. This This apparently apparently is not not a critical critical crossing. crossing. Kills the other other two points points indicated indicated critical critical deer deer at the crossings. crossings. Data obtained obtained duiing during this this study study adequately adequately Data documents documents the the location location ofdeer-vehicleaccidents of deer-vehicle accidents on Highway Highway 82. 82. Months Months when when crossing crossing kills kills 01~ occur occur may also be shown shown by graphing graphing kill and count data. data. On Highway Highway 82, 82, 57 57 percent percent of the the count count and and 62 62 percent percent of tthe occurred during during count he kill occuned February and March. March. Febmary Knowledge of deer deer densities densities and and kill locaKnowledge tions shows when when and and where where structures structures or tions shows other devices devices are need. needed reduce or prevent prevent other e d to reduce deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accidents. accidents. Recent Recent state state legislation legislation (Senate Bill No. 40, 40, effective effective July July 1, 1,1969, (Senate 1969, concerning cerning the the Protection Protection of Fishing Fishing Streams) Streams) requires requires state state agencies agencies to submit submit to the the Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks Division Division recommendations recommendations for for highway highway constmction construction along along rivers rivers and streams. streams. In addition, addition, the the Colorado Colorado Division Division of Highways and and the the Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Division Division are are cooperating cooperating in in finding finding a solution solution to the the problem problem of deer-vehiele deer-vehicle collisions collisions in Colorado. ,. 26 ,. 24 ,. ,·e' . ,. ir .. 20 20 ; 18 c 16 ., li ,.14 j ~ t12t •z 10 10 '0 ' ' ' .i1. ,1 .. dil. .. .. Ji, . . IIi• . ., > 't.' h. C. " " 0 " " Fig. miles of Highway Highway Fig. 5. 5. Ar-ea.s Areas of high high deer deer kill kill 011 on 18.5 18.5 miles 82 south south of Glenwood Glenwood Springs. Springs. 82 A timely quanA program program designed designed to provide provide timely quantitative information information on on critical critical deer deer crossings crossings titative primary highways highways is essential essential to the the prealong primary vention, or reduction, reduction, of these dangerous and and vention, these dangerous wasteful ccidents. wasteful a, accidents. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED Progulske, Progulske, D. R., and and D. C. C. Duen-e. Duerre. 1964. 1964. Factors Factors influencing influencing spotlighting spotlighting counts counts of deer. deer. J. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28(1):27-34. 28(1):27-34. Dale F F.. Reed Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant Wildlife September, September, 1969 1969 ��Outdooi-Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT0FNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION F GAME. DIVISION O OF GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS - d ·~ I 'c' 4,#t --- Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number Number 74 GUIDELINES FOR PROJECTS GUIDELINES FOR RANGE RANGE TYPE-CONVERSION TYPE-CONVERSION PROJECTS IN IN SAGE SAGE GROUSE GROUSE RANGE RANGE a,b a,b In In a rapidly rapidly changing changing environment environment the the brutal brutal alternative, ' adapt or perish," alternative, '"adapt perish," is often often the the only one. For, For, unfortunately, unfortunately, some some living living creatures creatures are unable unable to adapt, adapt, and must must be given given special consideration consideration when when their their habitats habitats are modified. The The sage sage grouse, grouse, in the the game bird world, is aa prime prime example example of this this phenomenon. phenomenon. Patterson (1952) Patterson (1952) observed observed that, that, in in the the face face ot' of changing have changing land-use land-use patterns, patterns, sage sage grouse grouse have remained remained specialized specialized and specific in their their habitat habitat requirements. requirements. Ile He stated stated that that sage sage grouse grouse have have not not adjusted, adjusted, and doubtlessly doubtlessly will not adjust., adjust, their their life life processes processes to fit land land use use eliminating eliminating or seiiouslv seriously disturbing disturbing sagebrush-grass sagebrush-grass types types constituting constituting their their seasonal seasonal ranges. ranges. Since about 1940, 1940, fiye five to sLx six million million acres sagebrush range range have have been been treated treated by burnburnof sagebrush ing, ing, spraying, spraying, plowing, plowing, disking, disking, chaining, chaining, cutting and beating beating in an attempt attempt to convert convert cutting brush ). brush to grass grass vegetation vegetation (Schneegas, (Schneegas, 1967 1967). In In Colorado Colorado,, 271,550 271,550 acres of sagebrnsh sagebrush range range on public public lands lands were were heated treated prior prior to 1966. 1966. Over 100,000 100,000acres, 39 percent, percent, of this this range range o,·er acres, or 39 was classed classed as sage grouse grouse habitat, habitat, aa fifth of which was heavily heavily used used by these these birds 1968). m.ufeld, <Kufeld,1968). Development or of guidelines guidelines to assisl assist land land Development managers managers in preserving preserving habitat habitat vital vital to sage grouse grouse was a primary primary objective objective of the the Fourth Fourth Biennial Biennial Workshop of the Vlestern Western States States Sage Grouse Committee, Committee, Walden, Colorado, 1965. 1965. t;rouse From this this effort came the framework framework used From used by th revision thee Committee Committee in in developing developing the the 1968 1968revision of ··cuidelines "Guidelines for Habitat Habitat Modification Modification in Sage Sage Grouse Range.'' Range." This document document was was divided Grouse This into (our four sections: sections: (1 (1)) aa brief review of sage grouse requirements requirements documenting documenting bases bases for grouse the guidelines; guidelines; (2 (2)) definition definition of sage grouse grouse participating the development development of typetypeaa .\Agencies gencies participating in the com'ersion guidelines guidelines were were the the departments departments of of game game connirsion and 11sh: fish: Colorado. Colorado, Idaho. Idaho, Montana, Montana, Nevada, Nevada, Utah Utah and and Wyonting; Wyoming; and and the the B11rea11 Bureau of Land Land ManageManageand nt. the me ment, the Fores Forest t Service, Service, and the the Bureau Bureau of Spon Sport Fislle1ies \\'ildlife. Fisheries and Wildlife. b Co nnibutio n l'rom ect W-37-R. Contribution from Federal Federal .\id Aid Proj Project W-37-R. range; (3) list range; list of guidelines guidelines to be eonsidered considered in planning planning type-conversion type-conversion projects proj ects 011 on sage sage grouse 4 ) proposals grouse range; range; and ((4) proposals to improve improve sage sage grouse grouse habitat. habitat. SAGE SAGE GROUSE GROUSE DEPENDENCY DEPENDENCY ON SAGEBRUSH SAGEBRUSH Research Research has has left no no doubt that that sageb1ush sagebrush is aa primary primary food of sage grouse grouse at all seasons seasons of the the year, year, and that that these these birds birds consume consume sagebrush foliage almost almost exclusively exclusively in winter. sagebrush winter. Nearly early all workers workers bave have reported reported that that sage sage grouse grouse prefer prefer open areas surrounded surrounded by sagebrush brush for strntting strutting activities. activities. Similarly, Similarly, almost almost all nests nests have have been been found found under under sagebrush sagebrush canopy, canopy, and the cover provided provided by sagebrush sagebrush known to be indispensible indispensible lo to brood brood rearing. is known rearing. Almost every sage grouse grouse activity activity takes takes place place 1\lmost in sagebrush or the sagebrush and; and/or the meadows meadows associated associated with with this this vegetative vegetative type. Committee guideline guideline report report these In the Committee these findings supported bibliographic findings are supported by bibliographic references. ref erenc es. SAGE SAGE GROUSE GROUSE RANGE RANGE Sage grouse grouse range. range, for for purposes purposes of the the guidelines guidelines given given here, here, is defined defined as; as any area area havina having record record of active active use use by sage sage grouse grouse during the immediately immediately preceding preceding 10 10 year~. years. dming (;uidelines Guidelines offered pertain pertain only to range range quahqualiunder this this definition_ definition. fying under TYPE-CONVERSION GUIDELINES FOR FOR SAGE SAGE TYPE-CONVERSION GUIDELINES GROUSE GROUSE RANGE RANGE Implementation Implementation of type-conversion type-conversion guideguidelines is normally normally made made by land land managers. lines managers. projects are planned, planned, managers managers must must When projects decide the the relative relative importance importance or of sage grouse grouse on the Tf the areas areas involved. involved. If grouse grouse are to be consideration, 1the guidelines adopted adopted by given consideration, .he guidelines the vital the Committee Committee are designed designed to protect protect vital habitats. These are as follows follows,, lifted lifted intact intact habitats. These the Committee Committee document. document. from U1e �1. 1. The The state state wildlife wildlife agency agency should should be notified notified of vegetal vegetal control control proposals proposals a minimum mum of one one year year in in advance advance of treatment treatment to facilitate facilitate evaluating evaluating the the effects effects of such such control control during during all seasons seasons of the the year. year. a. The The public public land land management management agency agency should should provide provide the the state state wildlife life department department with with large-scale large-scale maps maps on which the on which the proposed proposed areas areas to be treated treated are are located located and defined. defined. b. The The state state wildlife wildlife agency agency will plot plot sage sage grouse grouse use use areas areas on the the maps maps furnished furnished them: them: (1) strutting strutting grounds, grounds, (2) nesting nesting areas, areas, (3) wintering wintering sites, sites, 4} meadows ((4) meadows and summer summer range range areas. areas. of the c. Representatives Representatives the coopercooperating ating agencies agencies should should meet meet on on the the proproposed posed project project area area for an on-the-ground on-the-ground inspection inspection following following completion completion of the the maps. d. No No sagebrush sagebrush should should be treated treated or removed removed until until a comprehensive comprehensive multiple-use tiple-use management management plan plan has been been formulated formulated for for the the area. e. Sagebrush Sagebrush control control project proj ect plans plans e. should should include include provisions provisions for for long-term long-term quantitative measurements measurements of vegetavegetaquantitative tion tion before before and after after spraying spraying to acquire acquire data data on on the the effects effects of spraying spraying on on wildlife habitat, habitat, and ascertain ascertain whether whether objectives jectives of the the projects projects were were accomplished. plished. 2. 2. No No control control work should should be considered considered where live sagebrush sagebrush crown crown cover cover is less where than 15 15 percent percent (in (in range range occupied occupied by sage sage than grouse). grouse). 3. complex 3. The The breeding breeding complex (st.rutting (strutting grounds and and nesting nesting areas) areas) shall shall be congrounds sidered as all lands lands within within a 2 mile radius radius sidered occupied strutting strutting ground. ground. Vegetal Vegetal of an occupied control within within the the breeding breeding complex complex should should control not be undertaken undertaken within within 1/ 1/4 strutnot 4 mile of strutting grounds, grounds, or on on nesting nesting and other other ting special use use areas. areas. These These areas areas to to be be proprospecial tected tected from vegetal vegetal control control should should be clearly clearly defined defined on on the the maps maps in in lb above. 4. 4. There There should should be no vegetal vegetal eontrolatcontrol attempted tempted in any area area known known to have have supported supported important important wintering wintering concentrations concentrations of sage sage grouse delineated grouse within within the the last last 10 10 years years ((delineated inlb)except inlb)except to improve improve sage sage grouse grouse habitat. habitat. 5. No vegetal vegetal control control should should be at5. tempted along along streams, streams, meadows meadows and and draindraintempted ages. On-site On-site inspections inspections by land land managemanagement ment and wildlife wildlife agency agency personnel personnel should should be made the desirability made to assess assess the desirability of inincreasing or decreasing decreasing the the width width of leave leave creasing strips strips in specific specific areas. areas. Projects to conh·ol control sagebrush sagebrush should should 6. Projects be designed designed in in irregular irregular patterns. patterns. Design Design should should consider consider natural natural terrain, terrain, vegetative vegetative types, types, brush brush density, density, sage sage grouse grouse special special use use arieas areas and other other habitat habitat needs. needs. a. The The practice practice of treating treating and leaving sagebrush sagebrush in in alternate alternate strips strips in in a regular patterns is not regular patterns not generally generally considered ecsidered desirable desirable because because it it is non-sel non-selective the area treated. When this is tive of the area treated. When this done, however, treated done, however, treated strips strips should should be more than than 100 no, no more 100 feet wide, with with ununtreated than 200 treated strips strips no less less than 200 feet in in width. width. The The leave leave ships strips should should not not be sprayed sprayed until until food food and cover cover plants plants in in the the sprayed sprayed strips strips again again meet meet tbe the ne:eds needs of sage sage grouse. grouse. b. No large large blocks blocks of sagebrush sagebrush should should be be treated treated in in occupied occupied sage sage If blocks are sprayed gnouse grouse range. range. If blocks sprayed th,ey than 1/4 mile they should should be be no wider wider than mile and than 80 and no larger larger than 80 acres: acres; provided provided that where control that where control is in in blocks blocks the the area area treated treated should should not not exceed exceed 25 25 percent percent of the the total total unless unless on-site on-site inspections inspections management and by land land management and wildlife wildlife agency agency personnel that treatment personnel determine determine that treatment of additional not be additional areas areas will not be detrimental detrimental to sage sage grouse. grouse. treatments are c. When When partial partial kill treatments are used a minimum percent live live sagesageused minimum of 15 percent brush brush crown crown cover cover should should be be left, left, with with care to avoid avoid treating special use use areas. areas. ca:re treating special 7. Where possible spraying Where possible spraying should should be done vrith with a helicopter helicopter or ground ground rig done rig equipment. ment. No spraying spraying should should be done done when when velocity exceeds exceeds 5 knots. knots. wind velocity PROPOSALS PROPOSALS TO IMPROVE IMPROVE SAGE SAGE GROUSE GROUSE HABITAT HABITAT Improvement Improvement of wildlife wildlife habitat habitat is often often a plime To prime objective obj ective of of the the land land manager. manager. assist this endeavor assist him him in in this endeavor the the Committee Committee made made several several specific specific recommendations, recommendations, ververbatim batim as follows: 1. brush has 1. In In some some areas areas brush has encroached encroached upon meadow meadow lands lands primarily primarily due due to a upon lowering water table. lowering of the the water table. It It is recomrecommended that in some some such such situations situations big big mended that in sagebrush Chrysothamnus sagebrush and and rabbitbrush rabbitbrush ((Chrysothamnus spp.) removed along spp.) be be removed along streams streams and and desiccated upland upland meadows meadows to the extent of cated the extent original original meadow meadow boundaries. boundaries. Brush Brush beyond beyond these boundaries should these boundaries should be lefl left for a miniminimum mum of 100 100 yards. yards. Where Where feasible, feasible, dams dams with water control with appropriate appropriate water control structures structures should be installed the water water table should be installed to raise raise the table and recreate recreate meadows. meadows. Such Such meadow meadow areas areas should untreated sagebrush should have have untreated sagebrush cover cover acthem from cess lanes lanes leading leading to them from surroundsurrounding ra:nges. ranges. 2. Reclaimed Reclaimed meadows meadows should should be fenced 2. be fenced when feasible, feasible, and and proper proper grazing grazing practices practices when implemented. implemented. �Fig. 1. Aerial Aerial application application of herbicide herbicide on on sage sage grouse grouse habitat, habitat, North Park, Park, Colorado. Colorado. Fig. 2. 2. Aeriau Aerial view view of herbicide-sprayed herbicide-sprayed strips strips in in sagebrush North Park, brush t-yp•e, type, North Park, Colorado. Colorado. 3. fenced and 3. Small springs springs should should be fenced water water for livestock livestock piped piped to an an outside outside tank. tank. 4. 4. Reseeding Reseeding efforts efforts shouldincludedryshould include dryland land legumes. legumes. 5. Where Where large, large, continuous continuous areas areas of dense dense sagebrush sagebrush exist exist it may be desirable desirable to break break these these up by spraying spraying narrow narrow strips, strips, irregular irregular patterns, patterns, or with with partial partial kill treattreatment. ment. Detailed Detailed plans plans for such such aa program program should be worked worked out out by cooperation cooperation of should land land management management and wildlife wildlife agency agency personnel. sonnel. Responsibility of the the wildlife manager manager bebeResponsibility gins, rather rather than than ends, ends, with these these guidelines. guidelines. gins, Not only only must must productive productive research research be continued, but but also a constant constant involvement involvement in tinued, type-conversion projects projects has to be maintained. maintained. type-conversion The The administrator administrator or biologist biologist must must beprovided be provided with with all the the information information needed needed to incorporate incorporate sage grouse grouse as a resource resource into long-range long-range manman- agement Only through agement plans. plans. through this this approach approach can the adapt or perish," the fatal ultimatum, ultimatum, ""adapt or perish," be replacedl with the reminder, replaced with the more more acceptable acceptable reminder, cooperate and ""cooperate and perpetuate.'' perpetuate." LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Kufeld, Kufeld, R R... C. C.· 1968. 1968. Inventory Inventory of range range manimanipulation pulation projects proj ects in Colorado. Colorado. Colo Colo.. Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Div. Div.,, Fed. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., July, July, Part Part 1:1-121. 1:1-121. Patterson Patterson, , R. L. 1952. 1952. The The sage sage grouse grouse in Wyoming. Wyoming. Sage Books, Books, Inc., Inc., Denver. Denver. 351 351 p p.. Schneegas, Schneegas, E. R. 1967. 1967. Sage grouse grouse and sagebrush brush control. control. N. Amer. Wildl. and Natur. Natur. Conf.,, 32:270-274. 32:270-274. Res. C:onf. IIarold Harold M. M. Swope Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, 1969 August, 1969 ��Outdoor Fa) c ts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO OEPARTMENToF NATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION N O PARKS DIVISION oF OFGAME GAME, FISH FISH A AND PARKS Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number Number 75 AP ULSATING LIGHT AT NIGHT PULSATING LIGHT FOR FOR IDENTIFYING IDENTIFYING ANIMALS ANIMALS AT NIGHT a Often it is necessary necessary to identify identify individual individual animals, animals, or small groups groups of animals, animals, at night night in order order to determine determine concentrations, concentrations, movements, ments, and other other behavior behavior patterns. patterns. Richter Richter (1955) (1955) experimented-with experimented'with different different colors, activity designs, and tagging tagging techniques, techniques, using using "Scotchlite" "Scotchlite" tape and artificial light to identify identify small mammals. mammals. Recently, Recently, many investigators, investigators, using using radio telemetry, telemetry, have have refined refined methods methods for nocturnal nocturnal identification identification of wildlife to aa degree degree permitting permitting continuous continuous recording recording of location, physiology physiology and behavior behavior data for -long -long periods periods of time. N A A third third method, method, originally originally suggested suggested by Dr. Kenneth Kenneth Hungerford, Hungerford, University University of Idaho, Idaho, employs employs a pulsating pulsating neon light light attached attached to an animal by means means of a collar or harness. harness. The battery operated unit, tested battery"operated tested on penned penned elk by Prenzlow (1968), (1968), showed that that individual individual animals could be identified identified at night night up to aa animals distance distance of one-fourth one-fourth mile. Life Life expectancy expectancy of the 10 10 units units tested tested was almost one one year, and the the device had had no apparent apparent effect on the the behavior behavior of of the the animals. 0 ~ N N Construction Construction of the unit unit is simple, conconsisting sisting of a commercially available available neon neon glow glow lamp ((General General Electric capacitor,resistor, Electric NE7), NE7),capacitor,resistor, and 45-volt 45-volt radio battery battery (Fig. 1). 1). In assemblying the device all all connections connections should should be soldered, soldered, components components potted potted in clear resin resin or dental dental aI., 1965), 1965), to insure insure durability durability acrylic (Mech et al., and resistance resistance to weather weather (Fig. 2). The entire entire unit unit weighs weighs approximately approximately five ounces. ounces. To identify identify individual individual units, units, pulsating pulsating rates rates thee glow glow lamp can be regulated regulated by different different of th sizes of capacitors or by the amounts capacitors and/ and/or amounts of battery battery voltage. voltage. Pulsating Pulsating rates rates will change change relation to battery battery strength. strength. Usually slowly in relation noticeable until until several several months months this is not noticeable after initial initial use. Devices ((collar collar or harness) harness) used to attach attach aa unit nstructed unit to an animal animal should should be co constructed in such manner manner as to position position the glow lamp aa Contributio11 Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R, // \ +B 8 ;,:-------::' 105-125 Wolt Glow lomp 105 - 125 Volt, Vol t, .,25 25 Wott Glow Lomp C C MFO 100 DC MfD 100 V VDC R R 1. 0 1,\ egohm, l',0 . OWo 1.0 Megohm, Walt! ! Resistor Resi s tor 8B ~15 Vol t 45 Volt Fig. Fig, 1. Copoci Capacitor ! or Battery Baltery Schematic for conSchematic and and components components required required for str1.1ction pulser. struction of neon neon pulSe!". at all angles angles or positions. positions. This This can be done done using the the battery ballast, or by shaping shaping by using battery as ballast, the collar with with wire or lightweight lightweight spring spring steel steel the (Fig. 3). Units tested penned elk were attached tested on penned attached by means means of a canvas canvas collar covered with vinyl vinyl plastic. Different Different collars collars of plastic plastic plus plus large large numerals numerals were used, used, enabling enabling identification identification of individual individual elk during during daylight daylight hours. hours. ModiModithe attachment attachment device permits permits fication of the adaption technique to many adaption of the the technique many species species of wildlife. �Glow lamp Copoc, tor / Fig. 2. Assembled Assembled components components for neon Fig. neon pulser pulser before before and after after being clear resin. resin. and being potted potted in in clear Mold of desired shape can be made made from artist's clay. desired shape can from artist's Fig. 3. Canvas Canvas collar with vinyl vinyl covering covering containing containing Fig. collar with a neon neon pulser pulser unit. unit. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE Mech, L. D., V. B. Kuechle, Kuechle, D. D. W. Warner, Warner Tester. 1965. 1965. A collar collar for attachattachand J. R. Tester. ing radio transmitters transmitters to rabbits, rabbits, hares hares and raccoons. Wild!. Mgmt. Mgmt., 29(4):898-902. 29(4):898-902. raccoons. J. Wildl. Prenzlow, E. J. 1968. 1968. Experimental Experimental telemetertelemeterPrenzlow, Federal Aid Aid, Final Final ing devices. Colorado Federal Report, Work Plan Plan 11, Job Job 7 7, W-38-R, Report, W-38-R, 20, 20, 21 and 22. 22. 36 36 p. 21 Richter, W. C. C. 1955. 1955. A technique technique for night night Richter W. identification of animals animals.. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt., identification Mgmt. 19(1):159-160. 19(1):159-160. Prenzlow E. J. Prenzlow Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant April, 1969 1969 �O"L1tdoor Outdoor Facts Facts 41 PUBL ISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIV IS{ON OF G AME . F ISH AND DIVISION OFGAME. FISH AND PARKS PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number Number 76 76 A QUADRAT QUADRAT COUNT COUNT SYSTEM SYSTEM FOR FOR ESTIMATING ESTIMATING GAME GAME POPULATION POPULATION a A major major problem problem in wildlife management management is obtaining obtaining reliable reliable estimates estimates of wildlife populations, lations, and this problem problem is especially critical critical in big game programs. Because programs. Because the the need need is so great, great, most work on big game populations populations has taken taken the the form of trends trends in relative relative abundance. Recent work, primarily primarily in Alaska and Canada, has has revived revived interest interest in the estimation estimation of total Evans et al., 1966; total populations populations ((Evans 1966; ManMangold, 1966; 1966; and Siniff and Skoog, 1964), 1964), which which involves involves counting counting all animals on randomly randomly chosen chosen units units and projecting proj ecting the results. results. Count units units have generally generally been been strips strips or quadrats. quadrats. Evans Evans et al. (1966) (1966) and Siniff and Skoog's Skoog's (1964) (1964) estimates estimates of moose moose and caribou caribou populations, lations, so obtained, obtained, appear appear to be satisfactory satisfactory for management management use. similar system system was recently recently initiated initiated A similar in Middle Park, Colorado, where where estimates estimates of entire mule deer populations populations were were desired. entire such instances, instances, preliminary preliminary informaAs in all such tion tion was necessary necessary before the the sampling sampling scheme scheme could be devised. Winter distribution distribution data were required required for maximum maximum sampling sampling efficiency. As aa result result of initial surveys, surveys, eight eight separate separate areas ((strata) strata) were distinguished distinguished according to densities. initial sample sample expected deer densities. An initial was taken taken in each area, area, permitting permitting allocation allocation of sampling sampling units units for each in the the most most effective unit chosen chosen was the the squareway. The sample unit mile mile land survey survey section. Deer on these these secsections tions were counted counted withaBell47-G3Bhelicopter. with a Bell47-G3Bhelicopter. Initial survey survey information information indicated indicated that that Initial census census during during late late December or early January January would be best best because because deer, at that time, were were winter ranges ranges but but not yet tightly tightly concenon winter trated. trated. Also at this this time most bucks still retained antlers, antlers, permitting permitting population population classifiretained cation cation to be recorded recorded simultaneously simultaneously with enumeration. enumeration. Results Results of the the initial initial sample indicated indicated that that maximum of 80 80 sample sample units units would be rea maximum quired. Ultimately, Ultimately, 79 79 sections sections were chosen, chosen, flown, and and the the deer counted, counted, Figure Figure 1. 1. Counts for for 1968-69 1968-69 were conducted conducted during during the period period of December December 20, 20, 1968-January 4, 4, 1969, 1969, and reContribution of Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R. a Contribution quired quired approximately approximately 18 18 hours hours of flight flight time. time. Average per square Average deer deer density density per square mile was estimated estimated ;it at 15.5 15.5 ±± 3.4 3.4 deer deer (90 (90 percent percent confidence limiits); 1,489 deer were actually fidencelimits); 1,489deer actually counted. counted. The projeclted population total projected population total was 9,109 9,109= ± 2,108 2,108 deer, consiidered reasonable estimate considered a reasonable estimate (Table (Table 1). the initial 1). Based on on the initial success success of this this experiment, it would that estimates would seem seem that estimates could be made of t()tal populations in other total big game game populations other areas areas having having similar similar conditions. conditions. :::••••~ .•..••j = . ~:'ttr~'"~?{'~,J' '~W~f~~~'\ SCALE: I Inch = 5 miles .( i\\ i..\ \, ..\ .:,., \ ( Fig. 1. 1. Location Location and design design of Middle Middle Park Park deer deer census census quadrats. quadrats. (Chart (Chart by R. Bruce Bruce Gill) There are are several several limitations limitations in the There the application the method: method: (1) animals cation of the animals to be estim ated must, time during be mated must, at some some time during the the year, year, be where readily from the where theiy they can be seen seen readily the air; (2) the the extent extent of such such areas areas must must be known; (2) and (-3) (3) boundaries boundaries of the the sample sample units units must must be clearly recognizable recognizable while while flying. �Some animal populations populations conceivably conceivably subome animal j ect to estimation estimation by this sage ject this procedure procedure are are sage grouse, antelope, antelope, and muledeerwinteringmainmule deer wintering maingrouse, on open open brushland. brushland. Table Table 2 is a summary summary of ly on formulae estiformulae uused ed in making making the tbe ppopulation pulation c. imates Table 1. 1. given in Table m.ates given Table 1. Results the 1968-69 1968-S9Middle Park random random quadrat quadrat mule mule deer deer census. census. Table Results of the Middle Park Muddy Creek Creek Muddy High High Density Density Muddy Creek Creek Muddy Low Density Density Low 0o o0 0o o0 o0 0o o n 0o 0o 0o o0 0o 0o Blue River River Blue High Density Density High Blue River River Blue Low Density Low Density 0o 0o 11 44 15 15 17 17 58 58 36 36 6 15 15 2;y2 21 Ey2 = 21 n2=12 o2 = 12 N2 = 115.0 Y2 = 1.8 ~'2 s22 = = 20.4 522 = 4.5 s2 = 2;y3 = = 465 Ey3 = 12 n3 = N3 = 73.1 y3 = 38.8 s32 = 1555.1 1555.1 532= = 39.4 39.4 s3 = 2;y4 = 118 118 2:y4 n4 = 9 N4 = = 53.o 53.0 m = 13.1 13.1 y4 = s42= 247.4 542= s4 = = 15.7 s4- = 79 79 = N = = 587.7 yst= yst= 15.5 lf>.5 12 12 18 22 31 37 37 39 0o 0o o0 45 88 102 102 108 108 9 9 0o 8 20 36 36 o 0o 0o Troublesome E. Troublesome All High High Density Density 40 40 42 Q, 0o 6 6 Wms. Fk. Wms. Fis.. R. Density Low Density o0 o0 o0 10 29 29 35 19 Wms. Fk. Wms. Fk. R. High Density Density High 0o o0 4 Granby Granby All Low Density Low Density o0 o0 0o 22 5 0o 66 15 15 36 39 39 41 41 44 76 3 22 7 46 46 66 66 87 87 99 99 ~yl = = 478 478 !yl nl = nl = 20 NI = = 116.6 N1 = 23.9 yl = sl2 = = 914.4 s12 = 30.2 sl = ~yi = = 1489 1489 !yi n ll ty5 = 131 = 131 ~5 n5 =5 n5 =5 N5 = 28.1 = 28.l y5 = 26.2 y5 52 = 493.2 s s2= s5 = s5 = 22.2 m ~y6 =3 i; y 6 =3 n6 =5 n6 =5 s2 (yst) = = 4.3 s2 {ysl N6 = 63.3 6 -63.3 y6 = = 0.6 y6 62 = = 1.8 1.8 ss fi2 s6 = 1.3 s6 (yst) = = 2.1 s (yst) I,y7 2;y7 = = 262 n7 n7 = = 10 N7 =6U = 64.1 y7 = 26.2 y7 s 72= 72 = 625.7 = 25.0 ss77 =25.0 =11 2;y8 :z;y8 = ll n8 nS = 6 N8 = H.5 74.5 NS y8 = 1.8 y8 = 2=7.4 ss852 = 7.4 s8 = 2.7 s8 = tLa.10 71df 7ldf = 1.667 Table 2. Formulae used used in calculations calculations of population population estimations. estimations. Table 2. Formulae yst (mean (mean number number of deer square mile) = = Nh yh/N yst deer per per square Nh yh/ where: total number number of possible possible sample sample units units in in stratum stratum h where: Nh = total yh = mean mean number number of deer deer in stratum stratum h yh = total total number possible sample sample units units (Nh) (Nh) number of possible N = Total estimated number number of deer deer = = N yst yst Total estimated 2/ yst (variance of the 2/ nh the mean) mean) = = Wh 2 sh2 nh - Wh sh Sh22//N N ss2/yst(variance where: ratio Nh/N where: Wh = the the ratio Nh/ = the stratum variance variance sh22 = the stratum nh = the sample units ill stratum stratum h nh the number number of sample units iu Confidence limits limits for the the mean (51st = = yst 51st±± t s (yst) (yst) Confidence mean (yst where: this case 1.667 ((alpha = .10 with with 71 degrees degrees freedom freedom) where: t in this case is 1.667 alpha = Confidence limits limits for the the total total population population = 51st ±± t N s(yst) s(yst) Confidence = N yst LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE Evans, , C. C. D. D.,, W. and C. J. Lensink. Lensink. Evans W. A. Troyer, Troyer, and C. J. 1966. Aerial census census of moose quadrat 1966. Aerial moose by quadrat sampling units. units. sampling J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(4): 30(4): sampling. dom sampling. 391-401. 391-401. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28(2):; 28(2) 767-776. 767-776. Mangold, R. E. 1966. 1966. How many many deer? Mangold, deer? New Jersey Outdoors. July. 8 p. Jersey Outdoors. July. Siniff, D. D. B., and and R. O. 1964. Aerial 0. Skoog. 1964. Siniff, censusing of caribou caribou using stratified ranrancensusing using stratified R. Bruce R. Bruce Gill Assistant Researcher tan.I: Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Assi August, Augu t 1969 �cts Facts Outdoor F PUBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT OFF NATURALRESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES OEPARTMENTo DIVISION OF GAME. FISH AND PARKS D VISION OF GAME . FISH AND PARKS Number 77 77 Number Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game "DEER-MIRRORS" -- - A CLEARER CLEARER PICTUREa PICTURE a "DEER-MIRRORS" Facts No. 44 ((Boyd, 1966), a In Outdoor Outdoor Facts o. 44 Boyd, 1966), preliminary report on on the the use use of van van de Ree preliminary report mirrors as a means means of reducing reducing vehicle-deer mirrors vehicle-,deer collisions was presented. presented. Now, after collisions 'Now, after eight years study, it can can be report reported this years of study, ed that that this device is not effective preventing such acciaccieffective in preventing dents. This paper paper attempts attempts to clarify miscondents. ceptions induced induced by success success claimed in some ceptions earlier report reportss of deer mirrors mirrors in preventing earlier preventing collisions. collisions. The van van de Ree mirror The mirror (Fig. 1) is a strip polished, . stainless stainless steel, 9 by 4.5 4.5 inches inches of polished size. It is bent form two in size. bent at the the middle middle to fonn mirrors 4.5 inches inches square, square, reflecting reflecting at light right mirrors 4.5 angles to each other. brace between between the angles other. A brace the backs of the the mirrors, mirrors, with two holes holes for bolts bolts, permits permits attachment attachment to a steel T-post. mounting, posts posts were driven driven into the In mounting, the ground at 50-foot 50-foot intervals intervals alternating alternating on each ground the highway side of the highway (Fig. 2). Mirrors 1:irrors were attached the posts. mirrors attached to the posts. Half of the mirrors were set a uniform uniform height height of 34 34 inches inches above ground and adjusted adjusted to reflect light light rays across ground the highway. highway. The other other half were set at varythe ing heights heights above ground ground and adjusted adjusted to reflect away from the reflect the highway. highway. I \ (( Mirror face: face Mirror 11 "r I "1 1 1 "111 1I'I - 1/4 Inch inch slova stove ball bolt liT" fron iron fence post ''y" fence t:,os.t ,--with silver top ,.,---wil h sl lwe , tcip ./' _,,I _...1,+_ ~----JJ----~ 1,i 'II ''I '11 :~:'i\1Di ,:,,:1 1,, ,,,,,,I,',,' ','I,' Iii __ Il!. __ ' - - - - - 1 - -:4 - · I - - - - - ' Across ■ A.c:ros roadway raodw,ay deflection d•flutlon I, ,,"I, II 'I 11 1, " ,, jj' I' 'I I I 1"'I1 11 . " JJ '0 ~-=-:~ --:;_:.'>·- 1. The The van Ree mirror mirror assembly assembly as used Fig. 1. vau de Ree used in Colorado. olorado. ect W-38-R. a Contribution ontribulion from Federal Federal Aid A.id Proj Project V.-38-R. Fig. The deflection deflection of headlights headlights by the Ree Fig. 2. The the van van de Ree mirrors and and their along the the highway. highway. miITors their placement placement along Differences direction of reflection reflection was Differences in direction hope of measuring noticeableness uused ed in the hope measuring noticeableness of the mirror to motorist motorists. . Personal Personal interinterthe mirror drivers revealed revealed that, despite road that. despite views with drivers contrary, many motorists motorists did not signs to the contrary, mirrors were in roadside know the the mirrors roadside position. position. �Records of vehicle vehicle speeds speeds over over the same stretch stretch Records lhe same highway before after mirrors mirrors installation installation of highway before and after (Table 1) showed showed no decrease decrease in in speed. speed. (Table PERCENT PERCENT OF Of AVERAGE AVERAGE NUMBER OF ROAD-KILLED ROAD-KILLED DEER Table and range range of vehicle vehicle speeds Table 1. Average Average and speeds timed through two miles miles of the mirror the mirror timed through section before and mirror tnstallation. installation. section before and after after mirror Vehicle speeds (mph) (mph) Vehicle speeds Installation Average Range Installation Average Range Number of Number vehicle vehicles 54.7 54.7 57.4 133 133 89 Before Before After After a 30.4-82.8 30.4-82.8 38.3-79.1 38.3-79.1 PER MONTH MONTH PER (1961 - 1969) 1969) 11961 15 110 0 Signs informing informing motorists motorists of the the test a Sign test were were erected erected end of the the mirror section. at each each end m.il".t'or section. Original reports reports stated stated that that reflection reflection of Origj..nal headlights had a spotlight spotlight effect which which conheadlights had fused the deer immobility until the vehicle vehicle deer into into immobility until the fused the had passed. passed. Personal observation observation of the the rehad Personal flection appeared simple blink light flection appeared as a simple blink of light reflected rays rays crossed crossed the as the the arc of the the reflected the eyes. The The hoped-for hoped-for effect effect of this this wink wink was that it holding that it would would be an attention attention catcher, catcher, holding deer in in place the vehicle harmplace while while the vehicle passed passed harmdeer lessly. lessly. Road kills kills of deer deer were one were reported reported by one Road WCO for the duration of the the study. study. Based WCO the duration Based on these these reports reports, the the months months of highest highest road road on kill for the area were 3).. the area were October-April October-April (Fig. (Fig. 3) These are are the when deer concentrate These the months months when deer concentrate on their range through through which which the highon their winter winter range the highway passes. passes. In order measure possible road In order to measw-e possible shifts shifts in road kill from from year year to year, east east and and west Lo year west of Grand Grand Valley, deer crossings crossings on both sides both sides Valley data data for deer the town town were were compared. compared. The The ratios ratios (Table (Table of the not vary enough to show show statistical statistical 2) did not vary enough significance. significance. The effectiveness effectiveness of deer reducing The deer mirrors mirrors in reducing vehicle-deer collisions were on the the highhighvehicle-deer collisions were tested tested on way between Eight between Rifle and and Grand Grand Valley. Valley. Eight years of data data are summarized in Table Table 3 and and years are summarized Figure 4. Figure 5 4 3 2 o......_...,__ __........_...__...-._..._ _...________ o Moy May Number deer killed umber of deer killed miles east east of 10 10 miles miles west west of 16 miles Year Grand Valley Grand Valley Grand Valley Grand Valley Year Ratio Ratio 1961 1961 62 62 20 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 75 75 29 47 47 33 1:3.1 1:3.1 1:2.3 1:2.3 22 31 1:1.3 1:1.3 1:1.5 1:1.5 Jul Jut AUQ SIP Oct Oct Aug S•p Noy Nov Ole O.e Jon Jon FIb Ver Mor F.o Apr Apr Month Mooth Fig. Monthly occwTence occurrence of deer deer killed Fig. 3. Monthly killed by vehicles vehicles on U. S. Highway Highway 6-24 6-24 between Grand Valley and on between Grand Valley and Rifle, Colorado, Colorado, January January 1, 1961 1961 through Rifle through March March 31, 1969. 31 , 1969. Table 3. Comparison of the the number roadTable 3. Comparison number of roadkilled mirror test test section killed deer deer in the the mirror ection and and the rest of the the study study area, Valley the rest area, Grand Grand Valle. to Rifle, Colorado, January January 11, 1961-i\farch 1961-March Rifle Colorado 31, 1969. 1969. 31, Year Year Table Number and Table 2. Number and ratios ratios of road-killed road-killed deer deer in the game crossings east and crosstngs east and west west of tn the game Grand January i1, 19611961Grand Valley, Valley , Colorado, Colorado, January December 31, 31, 1964. 1964. December Jun -.kin 1961 1961 1962 1962 1963 1963 1964 1964 1965a 1966 1966 1967 1967 1968-69b 1968-69b Number of road-killed deer Number road-killed deer Section Section Mirror Mirror without mirrors mirrors ,vithout section section 39 39 23 ~3 47 47 28 28 15 14 14 39 39 8 10 10 20 20 20 20 22 22 43 43 52 52 48 48 67 67 Total Total 62 62 75 75 29 29 47 47 53 53 72 72 68 68 89 89 1965. a Mirrors Mirrors were were installed installed in in January, January 1965. b Mirrors were replaced replaced the 1968., furors were the first first week week of April, p1il, 1968 Numbers road-kill from 1968through repre ent road-kill from April Aprill1,,1968 through rumbers represent March 31,1969. March 31, 1969. �ROAD-KILL OF DEER DEER ROAD-KILL OF 70 fi YEAR YEAR BY 60 60 ; !? ..:- . :I 50 i . C .s 0 0 ;; • 1i ~ 0'0 40 I.. e ~ 30 30 /' /' , r:;(' 8' ..f \\ 20 20 . i ,; ,, \\ \ I B/:l---e- --{ /!1---e8- j ; \\ \\ I "'i:> C/ ' 10 10 !· I 0 l \\ i !& .. ,q ~ ..i .~ 1::I .,.,, .~ I " " I ,,, __.d 0---0 .9•clktft S.cl1on •01\ewl wlttlout •lrn,.. mlrro •.• 0---0 &- -B StcUOJa Section wirh M.trro,.. IIIlrro •.• G---G .1,• oo' - -,'s, -""' ,&'2'61 '62 ""' •63 - '63 - '&_4 _ ... ,65 - -,.. &6- -.6 - -7_ '64 '65 '66 '67 _... ,68 .._ '68 Ye ar Year In 1964, 1964, the the year year before before mirrors mirrors were In were installed, stalled, the the ratio ratio of road road kill in in the the mirror mirror section, section, as compared compared to thecontrolarea, the control area, dropped dropped 73 73 percent percent below a similar similar comparison comparison for 1963 1963 (93.3 percent percent in in 1963, 1963, 20.5 20.5 percent percent in in 1964). 1964). (93.3 mirrors had had been been effective effective the the ratio ratio of If the mirrors the mirror mirror section section of the the road, road, as kill along the compared compared to the the conh·ol control area, area, would would have have decreased creased even even further, further, at least least during during the the three three winter months winter months after after installation. installation. Instead, Instead, there there increase, October-December, October-December, was a 23-percent increase, 1964, 1964, as compared compared to Febiuary-April, February-April, 1965 1965 (5.3 (5.3 percent before before installation; installation; 28.0 28.0 percent percent after after percent installation). A installation). A similar similar comparison comparison of the the average average road road kill, five years years without without mirrors mirrors versus ears with versus three three yyears with mi1Tors, mirrors, yielded yielded a 3.6-percent increase increase in kill when when rnilTors mirrors were in in effect (31.4 (31.4 percent percent without without milTors, mirrors, 35.0 35.0 percent percent with with mirrors). mirrors). Hope placed placed in in th. thee use use of deer-milTors deer-mirrors as Hope a deterrent deterrent to deer-vehicle deer-vehicle collisions collisions have have been been shattered shattered as tested tested in wester westernn Colorado. Colorado. At present, present, 'the 'the Division Division is searching searching for for factors factors contributing contributing to deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accidents. accidents. If such factors factors can be identified, identified, new approaches approaches toward toward mitigating the the deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accident accident problem problem mitigating on high-speed high-speed roads roads can then then be undertaken. undertaken. Fig. Fig. 4. Yearly Yearly total total of road•killed road-killed deer deer in in test test sections sections on. on U. S. Highway Highway 6-24 6-24 between between Grand Grand Valley Valley and and Rifle, Colorado, Colorado, January January 1. 1, 191>1. 1961-March 31, 1969. 1969. Rifle, - March 31. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED 1966. ""Deer-mirrors" they Boyd, R. J. 1966. Deer-minors'· - do they work? Colo. Div. Game, Fish work? Fish and Parks, Parks, Outdoor Facts Facts No. 44. 44. 22 p. Outdoor Gordon David F. Gordon Assistant Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher July, July, 1969 1969 ��0"L1tdoor Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED OEPARTMENTorNATURAl DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES D IVISION OF GAME, DIVISION GAME. FISH FISH AND AND PARl<S PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number 78 Number GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING SCALED QUAIL QUAIL HABITATa HABITATa REQUIREM.EN'fS REQUIREMENTS AND AND LIMITATIONS LIMITATIONS Food, water are the the three three essential essential Food, cover cover and water requirements requirements of wildlife, and, indeed, indeed, of the the animal animal kingdom. kingdom. Scaled quail quail are no exception, exception, and these these three three life factors factors are the the basis basis of the the environment environment complex complex that that is quail quail habitat. habitat. Habitat, of course, course, includes includes or involves involves climate, climate, soils, tat, topography, use, vegetation, vegetation, and and other other pphysical topography, hysical human-induced components. components. and human-induced more habitat habitat components components limit limit the the One or more abundance, or even even the the existence, existence, of scaled abundance, quail. Before increases increases in in numbers numbers can can be quail. Before brought brought about, about, environmental environmental limitations limitations must must determined. Research has has provided provided some some be determined. Research guidelines guidelines for given given scaled scaled quail habitat habitat areas, areas, and information information presented presented here here deals primarily primarily with with the the species species in the the northern northern, part part of its range, range, as follows: 1. 1. Before Before habitat habitat manipulation manipulation for scaled quail quail or any other other species species is attempted, attempted, the the best possible sible understanding understanding of the the species, species, its requirerequirements and applicable applicable environmental environmental analyses, analyses, ments must must be obtained. obtained. 2. 2. In Colorado, Colorado, habitat habitat improvement improvement should should be within atural range within the the nnatural range of the the species. Many transplants transplants to more more northern northern range range have have been been attempted attempted (Hoffman, (Hoffman, 1965), 1965), but but none none have have succeeded. succeeded. 3. Shrubby Shrubby shelter shelter cover cover is an essential essential requirement quirement of the the scaled scaled quail range. range. Schemnitz Schemnitz (1961) (1961) stated stated that that the the life form of plants plants could be used used to compare compare habitat habitat for scaled quail in geographic geographic regions regions more more realistically realistically than than species species differentiation. differentiation. In In some some instances, instances, manmade made plantings plantings or natural natural rocky rocky outcrops outcrops supplesupplement the equivalent, ment shrubby shrubby cover, or the equivalent, and and constitute stitute an essential essential component component of th~ the species' habitat. habitat. -!. 4. Habitat Habitat manipulation manipulation should should not not be be attempted tempted on on pure pure short-grass short-grass or mid-grass mid-grass range range where where little little or no shmbby shrubby cover exists. Neither Neither should anipulation be attempted should habitat habitat m manipulation attempted in a Contribution Federal Aid Project Contribution from Federal Project W-37-R. W-37-R. farmed farmed regions regions unless unless tilled tilled land is closely interinterspersed with with rangeland rangeland containing containing shrubby shrubby cover. spersed Hoffman Hoffman (1965) (1965) listed listed cover types types of value value to Colorado. scaled quail in Colorado. 5. 5. Seeds, f1uits, fruits, flowers flowers and leaves leaves of forbs comprise comprise the the main main diet of scaled quail quail adults adults (Kelso, (Kelso, 1937; 1937; Wallmo, 1957) 1957).. Young Young birds birds consume sume high high percentages percentages of insects. insects. Habitat Habitat improvement provement should should be u11dertaken undertaken only only when when such foods are are present present or can readily readily be be established. established. 6. 6. Habitat Habitat manipulation manipulation is most most effective effective on on light light to moderately moderately grazed grazed range. range. Overgrazing Overgrazing by livestock livestock eliminates eliminates natural natural food and cover, but but range range released released from overgrazing overgrazing often often develops develops into into good to excellent excellent scaled quail habitat. habitat. 7. Normally, Normally, scaledquailobtainmoisturefrom scaled quail obtain moisture from 7. dew and succulent succulent vegetation vegetation and are able to live without free Campbell, 1960; live without free drinking drinking water water ((Campbell, 1960; Hungerford, Hungerford, 1960); 1960); however, however, other other studies studies have have shown shown that that drinking drinking water water is is readily readily used used when when available. The value available. value of water water may increase increase density increases. increases. Until Until more more is as scaled quail density learned about about the the species, species, water water is listed listed as a learned desirable desirable rather rather than than an essential essential habitat habitat requirerequirement. ment. 8. Scaled quail quail nest nest under under or among among dead 8. Russian Salsola kali), Russian thistles thistles ((Salsola kali) , grasses, grasses, forbs, shrubs, shrubs, old machinery, machinery, junk junk piles, piles, yucca yucca (Yucca glauca) glauca), , cacti, rocky ledges, ledges, and other other locations locations ((Schemnitz,1961). Schemnitz, 1961). Despite Despite this this adaptability, adaptability, they show a territorial territorial nature nature during during the the breeding breeding season, season, and this this factor, and perhaps perhaps others, others, limit the the nesting nesting capacity capacity of even the the best range. range. 9. 9. Weather Weather is is highly highly influential influential 011 on scaled quail reproduction. In reproduction. In southern southern and western western parts of the range, spring spring and summer summer droughts droughts parts the range, seem to hinder Hunhinder reproduction reproduction (Wallmo, 1957; 1957;Hungerford, gerford, 1964) 1964) for green green vegetation, vegetation, needed needed to induce induce the the physiological physiological condition condition necessary necessary to breeding, breeding, is unavailable unavailable dming during such such periods. periods. In arts of the In northern northern pparts the range range droughts droughts do not not appear appear as influential influential as in the the more more southern southern portions Schemnitz, 1961; portions ((Schemnitz, 1961; Snyder, Snyder, 1967) 1967).. However, knowledge knowledge of requirements requirements for successful successful nesting nesting and reproduction reproduction is very very limited. limited. �10. 10. Scaled quail quail populations populations fluctuate fluctuate widely from year year to year. year. Annually Annually the the general general popupopufrom lation lation level level is relative relative to the the carrying carrying capacity capacity of the involved. Habitat the habitat habitat involved. Habitat improvement improvement is the the key to increased increased carrying carrying capacity. capacity. 11. 11. Even Even with with improvement, improvement, a given given range range sustain only only a given given number number of quail. quail. Howwill sustain ever, quail quail consistently consistently produce produce numbers numbers SUI'plus surplus to range range capacity. capacity. Hunting Hunting is an effective, effective, and and highly desirable, desirable, means means of removing removing surplus surplus birds. birds. highly 12. 12. Population Population increase increase can be achieved achieved more more economically where where basic basic habitat habitat requirements requirements economically are already already fair to good. Quail occurrence occurrence is often often indicative indicative of the the area's area's capacity capacity for development. ment. 13. In In the the northern northern part part of the range, shrubs shrubs the range, 13. which provide provide resting resting and escape escape cover cover in spring spring which and summer summer often often appear appear inadequate inadequate in winter winter (Snyder, (Snyder, 1967). 1967). Each Each fall many many coveys coveys move move rangeland to farm farm yards, yards, old building building sites, sites, from rangeland and similar similar locations, locations, where where they they use use old and machinery, machinery, junk junk piles, piles, tree tree plantings, plantings, and other other man-made cover cover through through the the winter. winter. Large Large conman-made centrations centrations often often gather gather in such such places, places, creating creating inter-species inter-species competition competition for food and and protection. protection. movements indicate Such Such fall movements indicate the the limitations limitations of the the environment environment in in question. question. The The main main objective obj ective is to provide provide protection protection from weather and avian avian predators, predators, and various various wind, weather methods methods have have been been employed. employed. Limbs Limbs from dead, standing braced against standing trees trees may may be cut cut and and braced against the the erect trunk. trunk. In In other other situations situations tree tree branchbranches may be draped draped over over a post post or pole framework framework canopy. Surplus Christmas Christmas trees trees to form a canopy. Surplus piled piled loosely loosely or over over a low frame frame are effective. effective. Stacked brush, brush, however, however, often often becomes becomes too comStacked pact pact to permit permit quail quail entry entry and and use. use. Mo.re More sophisticated sophisticated structures structures may be economically nomically erected. erected. The The rainwater rainwater collecting collecting apron apron (Fig. 1) 1) on guzzlers guzzlers (see (see Water Water Supplements) Supplements) (Fig. may serve shelter shelter purposes. purposes. Likewise, Likewise, a wooden wooden frame frame positioned positioned one foot above above ground ground and covered covered by corrugated corrugated steel steel is satisfactory; satisfactory; size feet or other may be 8 x 12 12 feet other convenient convenient dimension. dimension. SUPPLEMENTING SUPPLEMENTING THE EXISTING ENVIRONMEN'I' ENVIRONMENT Scaled quail quail are are one one of the the easiest easiest game game birds birds to study study and and manage. manage. They They readily readily adapt adapt to food, cover With cover and water water supplements. supplements. management, management, the the species species seems seems destined destined to become come a more more important important game game bird bird on habitable habitable cangein range in the the future. future. Cover Cover Studies Studies have have shown shown that that deficiencies deficiencies inducing inducing quail quail movement movement off rangelands rangelands can readily readily be eliminated eliminated by supplementing supplementing natlll'al natUl'al vegetation vegetation with artificial artificial resting resting cover. cover. Scaled quail quail will will with use use almost almost any man-made man-made structure structure for resting resting purposes, and such such cover cover usually usually can can be quickly quickly purposes, and eccmomically economically provided. provided. Location Location of RestingCover-Properplacement Resting Cover-Proper placement resting cover cover is a key factor factor in in successful successful of resting habitat Ample habitat improvement. improvement. Ample natural natural food and escape vegetation, vegetation, in in close close association association with with shelescape ter, ter, is vital. vital. Where Where brushy brushy cover cover or rocky outcrops crops exist, shelters shelters should should be located located in or adjacent adjacent to cover cover of the the best best quality. quality. Forbs, Forbs, the the main main diet of quail, quail, are are usually usually found found in locations locations where where vegetative vegetative succession succession is in in the the stages. Drainages, Drainages, field borders, borders, windmill windmill early stages. sites, n dother sites, occupied occupied or or vacant vacant building building sites, sites, a. and other locations locations where where forbs are abundant, abundant, are are ideal ideal for locating locating new home home ranges ranges for quail quail coveys. coveys. Type of Resting Explicit design Resting CoverCover-Explicit design is not not essential essential when when constructing constructing resting resting shelters. shelters. i· . fig. Fig. 1. Feeder, Feeder, guzzler guzzler and brush brush shelter shelter within within a fenced fenced enclosure enclosure are constantly constantly used used by scaled scaled quail. quail. (Photo (Photo by Howard Howard A. Stiehm) Stiehm) Establishing Establishing Natural Natural Cover-It Cover-It is is difficult difficult and usually usually impractical impractical to introduce introduce trees trees and shrubs shrubs for scaled scaled quail quail because because the the range range of this this species is too dry and competition competition from native native species vegetation vegetation is is too great. great. If If plantings plantings are wanted, wanted, low-growing, low-growing, bushy bushy species species native native to the the region region should be used. used. Heavy Heavy plastic plastic sheeting sheeting or simishould lar lar material material can can be used used as a ground ground cover cover to collect collect precipitation, precipitation, hold hold moisture, moisture, and and reduce reduce weed competition. Opuntia arborcompetition. Tree Tree cactus cactus ((Opuntia arborescens) may be transplanted transplanted to provide provide quail quail escens) cover cover and ward off livestock, livestock, but but this this degree degree probably is not not practical. practical. of effort probably Fencing Fencing Fences Fences are expensive expensive and and should should be avoided avoided when when possible; possible; however, however, small small exclosures exclosures are frequently frequently needed needed to protect protect habitat habitat plantings plantings from livestock. livestock. Dense Dense growth growth of Russian Russian thistle thistle or other forbs often other forbs often develops develops inside inside fenced fenced areas, areas, �impeding impeding quail quail use. use. Chemical Chemical soil sterilants sterilants can can be be used used to open open pathways pathways into into such such areas. areas. Foocl Food Supplements Supplements l\la1ly Many range range areas areas are are tightly tightly sodded sodded but but possess possess good densities densities of shrub shrub cover cover (Fig. (Fig. 2) 2).. Food-producing Food-producing vegetation vegetation in sod, sod, however, however, is usually the usually inadequate-often inadequate-often the situation situation in canyoncanyonmesa mesa country. country. Food-producing Food-producing vegetation vegetation can can be established techniques: (1) established by a nwnber number of techniques: terraces terraces or plowed plowed strips strips to enhance enhance food proproduction duction neax near resting resting cover; and and (2) food plots plots containing containing cultivated cultivated sorghums sorghums or other other grains grains can can be be used, used, but but are not not practical practical in most most instances stances due due to aridity. aridity. Intensity Intensity of Habitat Habitat Development Development Properly Properly positioned positioned resting resting cover cover alone alone will allow moderate moderate increase increase in scaled scaled quail quail numbers numbers in many many northern northern parts parts of its natural natural range. range. Ground Ground disturbance, disturbance, stimulating stimulating food production, production, can be be combined combined with with resting resting cover cover to open open new home home ranges ranges in in suitable suitable locations. locations. Overgrazing technique. grazing is not not compatible compatible with this this technique, but but light light to moderate moderate grazing grazing is sometin1es sometimes beneficial. beneficial. When When large large population population increases increases of scaled scaled quail quail are are desired, desired, all prevailing prevailing environmental environmental limitations limitations must must be overcome. overcome. The The economical economical feasibility feasibility of maintaining maintaining high high quail quail densities densities is, however, however, uncertain uncertain due due to inadequate inadequate knowlknowledge Guzzlers, edge of the the species' species' requirements. requirements. Guzzlers, feeders feeders and and extensive extensive supplemental supplemental cover cover help help materially Reduced materially in many many areas. areas. Reduced livestock livestock grazing grazing and, in some some instances, instances, predator predator control control should lans. should be be considered considered in management management pplans. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED on tightly tightly sodded sodded rangeland. rangeland. Sod disturbdisturbFig. 2. Yucca on ance, ance, to create create rood-producing food-producing forbs, forbs, combined combined with with $upplemental supplemental resting resting cover cover enhance enhance this this range range type type for scaled (Photo scaled quail quail production. production. (Photo by Warren Warren D. D. Snyder) Snyder) Feeders, Feeders, if used, used, should should supplement supplement rather rather tllan substitute than substitute for natural natural foods; they they can can be economically economically constructed constructed and and are readily readily used used by scaled scaled quail. quail. Feeders Feeders should should be positioned positioned at least least three three feet above above ground ground to exclude exclude rodents. l\Iilo rodents. Milo is one one of the the preferred preferred grains grains for feeding feeding purposes. purposes. Water Supplements Supplements Despite Despite lack of evidence evidence indicating indicating the the benebenefits of free free water, water, precipitation precipitation catchments catchments (guzzlers) been used lers) have have been used extensively extensively in southwestern southwestern Cnited United States States for quail quail habitat habitat improvement. improvement. Various Various sites, sites, shapes shapes and forms forms have have been been tested. tested. One of the the most most practical practical for scaled scaled quail quail was was designed and and constructed constructed by U. S. S. Forest Forest Service Service designed personnel in southeast personnel southeast Colorado, Colorado, but but various various modifications modifications (Fig. (Fig. 1) of Lhis this guzzler guzzler style style have have been been made made tSnyder. (Snyder, 1969) 1969).. Campbell, Campbell, H. 1960. 1960. An evaluaUon evaluation of gallinagallinaceous ceous guzzlers guzzlers for quail quail in in New rvicxico. Mexico. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 24(1):21-26. 24(1):21-26. Hoffman, D. D. M M.. 1965. The The scaled scaled quail quail in 1965. Hoffman, Colorado. Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Fish and Pai·ks, Parks, Tech. Tech. Pub Pub.. No. 18. 18. 47 47 p. Hungerford, Water requirements Hungerford, C. R. 1960. 1960. Water requirements Gambel's quail. quail. N. Amer. Amer. Wildl. Conf. ConL,, of Gambel's Trans. Trans. 25:231-240. 25:231-240. ____ . 1964. 1964. Vitamin Vitamin A and productivity productivity in in Gambel's Gambel's quail. quail. J. J. Wildl.Mgmt.28(1):141-147. Wildl.Mgmt. 28(1) :141-147. Kelso, L. H. 1937. 1937. Food Food of scaled scaled quail. quail. U, U. S. Kelso, Dept. Agric., Bur. Bur. Biol. BioI. Surv., Surv., Wildl. Res. and and Mgmt. Leafl. Leaf!. BS-84. BS-84. 9 pp.. Schemnitz, Schemnitz, S. S. D. 1961. 1961. Ecology Ecology of scaled scaled quail quail in Wild!. in the the Oklahoma Oklahoma Panhandle. Panhandle. Wildl. Monographs . 8. 47 graphs No NO.8. 47 p. Snyder, Snyder, W. W. D. 1967. 1967. Experimental Experimental habitat habitat improvement provement for scaled scaled quail. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Tech. Tech. Pub Pub.. No. 19. 19. 65 65 p. 1969. A modified modified gallinaceous gallinaceous guzzler guzzler -___- -·.. 1969. for scaled quail. quail. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Fish and and Parks, Game Game Inform. Inform. Lean. Leaf!. No. 65. 65. 2 p. Parks, Wallmo, Wallmo, 0. O. C. 1957. 1957. Ecology Ecology of scaled scaled quail quail in West Texas. Texas. M. M. S. Thesis, Thesis, Texas Texas A & & M Univ. Univ. 143 143 p. (typewritten) (typewritten) Warren Warren D. D. Snyder Snyder Wildlife Researcher Researcher January, January, 1970 1970 ��Outdoor Facts I F t 1t . PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO P BUSHED BY THE DEPARTMENT or OF NATURALRESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF OF GA GAME, FISH AND PARKS DIVISION ME, FISH AND PARKS J ~. Number 79 Number Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet A CARRYING CRATE CRATE FOR DEER DEERaa Researchers and game game managers managers are are finding finding Researchers increasing need for h·ansporting transporting live deer. This This increasing leaflet describes the structural details details (Figs (Figs.. 1 leanet desclibes the structural deer-carrying crnte crate used and 2) of a deer-carrying used by Colorado Colorado Division of Grune, Game, Fish Fish and Pa1·ks Parks personnel personnel Division at the Little Hills Game Experiment Experiment Station Station the Little near Meeker. The The finished finished crate, crate, and the the ease near ease handling by a two-man two-man crew, are are shown shown of handling 4. in Figures Figures 3 and 4. made from three standard Two crates crates can be made three standard plywood panels. panels. Four Four sides sides and 4' x 8' x 3/8" 3/ 8 'plywood two bottoms bottoms are cut cut from two panels, panels, and two tops and four doors doors are cut cut from the third. and four the third. tops must be shortened shortened about about three inches so three inches Tops must they overlap the grooves, and doors doors the door grooves, they do not overlap Top. Top A~· _~:__+ + ~1'¼ 2 Bottom Bollom 3 3 are U.5-inch O.5-inch narrower narrower than the inside inside crate crate width width are than the sliding. to permit permit free sliding. End-frames are of angle iron, giving giving strength strength End-frames angle iron, and rigidity. All welds should should be on the the outside outside and rigidity. to keep the the inside inside surface surface clear clear for better better wood fits. guides and cleats for one one box are are cut and cleats cut Door guides from'a•a 10-foot 10-foot length 1" x 44"' pine pine lumber. lumber. length of l' from The outer outer and bottom guides should should fit nearly nearly The bottom guides flush end-frames; the back edge of the the end-frames; flush with the width inner guides guides and cleats, cleats, which the inner which width of the provide footing footing for deer deer, is not important. important. provide Machine screws screws are are used used throughout, throughout, with with Machine most heads the inside order to prevent most heads on the inside in order prevent damage to the the animals. animals. On the the bottom, bottom, screw damage , ,t-8 ~5 ;,, J. ,----,~...---, ,,- bo!!om bottom /6· bollom bollom ,16~ i; : I: I -----T T It I side 40" side side side sid~ 40· 40- side J_ '---_-J.~!__-...J 4a·-l ~:~-.~~~48--1 4-~_L ~48-~ top r--- - - lop /6" 16 0 /6 .. ~-~':.- ~ door 1>1" l door /:,-j" r---'. door I door l!i ~ />1" ,----- - IY/" 15'1" I ~~~_ door }----- J.JJ" door d00< l!if° l \--42•-iT ~42'--1T Plywood cutting poltero potter. Plywood for 2 crates crates for Outside dimen-sions dimensions ore. are io to wood wood Ou\s1de 011bollheods inside except except on bottom bottom Keep 011 Keep bollheods on W\Side flat Use 11ot washers ogolnst against all wood washers surfaces surfaces outside on ou1olde Fig .. 1. Construction Construction features carrying crate crate for deer. deer. Fig. features of carrying Bartmann) Bartmann) Contribution from Federal a Contribution Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R. (Drawing by Richard Richard M. M. (Drawing �Fig. Internal of deer-carrying Fig. 2. Internal construction construction deer-carrying crate. crate. (Photo (Photo by Richard Richard M. M. Bartmann) Bartmann) heads heads are on the the outside outside and the wood wood is counterbored counterbored to recess recess the the nut nut and washer washer flush flush with lhe ers ar erred the surface. These These fasten fasteners aree pref preferred if the the crate crate must must sustain sustain hard hard use, use, even even though though the the exposed exposed nuts nuts may snag. Otherwise, Otherwise, 1-inch, I-inch, 1 2-inch flathead, flathead, wood screws screws may may replace replace the the 111/2-inch and 111/4-inch 1/ 4-inch machine machine screws. The weighs about The finished finished crate crate weighs about 75 75 pounds. pounds. It It should should be painted painted for added added weather weather resistance. resistance. The The total total cost for materials materials (1970) (1970) was about about $25 $25 per per crate, crate, varying varying according according to local local prices. prices. Four Four crates crates can can be carlied carried cross-wise cross-wise in a six-foot six-foot pickup pickup truck truck bed and five five can be canied carried in an an eight-foot eight-foot bed. At Little Little Hills, Hills, these crates these crates have have satisfactorily satisfactorily held held deer deer weighweighing ing up to 200 200 pounds, pounds, and safe safe transport transport distances tances have have ranged ranged to 300 300 miles miles in cool weather. weather. The el distance The upper upper limits limits of deer deer size and trav travel distance feasibility feasibility are unknown. unknown. There There are, are, of course, course, modifications modifications of the the crate; crate; the the design design presented presented here here is only only a startstarting point. er, severalconstructionfeatures point. Howev However, several construction features should should be recognized: recognized: The The crate crate should should be constructed structed without without cracks cracks or windows, windows, for most most deer deer remain remain quiet quiet if the the interior interior of the the box is dark. On warm days, adequate adequate ventilation ventilation is provided provided by several several small holes holes near near the the top and bottom bottom of the the front front and rear rear ends ends of the the box; but but unreasonable unreasonable tcmperatt.Lres temperatures may may require quire special special attention. attention. The recommended recommended minimum minimum plywood plywood thickthickThe ness ness is three-eighth three-eighth inch, inch, particularly particularly for doors doors bottom. Loss Loss in strength strength would would not not justify justify and bottom. the sma.11 small savings savings in cost and weight weight provided provided the by thinner thinner materials. materials. The The following following is a tested tested list list of materials materials for one one crate. crate. Quantity Quantity 1 1/ 2 panels 1/2 panels 4' x 8' x 3,'8" 3/8" A-C A-C exterior exterior grade grade plywood plywood 10 lI"" x 4" pine 10 feet feet pine lumber lumber door guides guides and and cleats) cleats) (for door 20 1" 8" angle 20 feet feet I" x 1" I" x 1/ 1/8" angle iron iron (makes (makes two end frames) frames) 12 1" 8" strap 12 feet feet I" x 1/ 1/8" strap iron iron (makes (makes 6 braces) braces) 4 chest chest handles handles 40 1/ 4" x 1 1/ 2" machine nut 40 1/4" 1/2" machine screw screw w w/nut 8 1/ 4" x 1 1/ 4'' machine nut 1/4" 1/4" machine screw w w/nut 40 1/4" nut 40 1/4" x 3i4" 3/4" machine machine screw w, w/nut 100 1/4" washer 100 1/ 4" flat washer Richard M. lVI.Bartmann Bartmann Richard Assistant Assistant 'Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher and and Figs. Figs. 3 and and 4. 4. The The finished finished crate crate for carrying carrying individual individual deer, (Photos deer, easily easily handled handled by two persons. persons. (Photos by Richard Richard M. Bartmann) Bartmann) Steven Steven F. Steinert Steinert Research Research Assistant Assistant January, January, 1970 1970 �Outdoor Facts Facts , PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT oF OF NATURALRESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION ND PARKS DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME, FISH FISH A AND PARKS Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet / if '\ :~ ' Number Number 80 80 GLOSSARY OF SELECTED SELECTED ANIMAL ANIMAL BEHAVIOR BEHAVIOR DEFINITIONSa DEFINITIONSa "Shop" discussions among "Shop" discussions among sportsmen, sportsmen, naturalists, wildlife naturalists, outdoor outdoor enthusiasts, enthusiasts, wildlife researchers, searchers, game game managers managers and and other other often often relate relate to the the activities activities of animals. animals. The The study study of animal animal behavior, concerned concerned with with what what animals animals do rather rather behavior, than what what animals animals are, are, is obviously obviously important important than in the the wildlife wildlife profession, profession, research research or managemanagement. ment. The The following following list list of selected selected definitions definitions of animal animal behavior behavior may be of use use to wildlife wildlife personnel and and others others interested interested in, or concerned concerned personnel with, with, this this field. b CONT ACTUAL BEHAVIOR: ""Defined Defined as simply CONTACTUAL simply maintaining the formation maintaining bodily bodily contact contact and and the formation of simple behavior of simple aggregations aggregations through through behavior this the this sort sort occlll's occurs very very widely throughout throughout the animal kingdom." kingdom." ((Scott 1956:214) animal &ott 1956:214) CRITICAL PERIOD: "Specific "Specific stage stage in ontogeny ontogeny during behavior norduring which which certain certain types types of behavior norshaped and molded molded for for life." mally are shaped life." (Beach and Jaynes Jaynes 1954:258) 1954:258) (Beach Selected Selected Behavior Behavior Definitions Definitions Applicable Applicable to Game Birds Birds and Mammals Mammals "Any behavior behavior assoAGONISTIC BEHAVIOR: "Any ciated ciated with with conflict conflict or fighting fighting between between two individuals. individuals. (Includes) (Includes) patterns patterns of behavior behavior involving involving escape or passivity." passivity." (Scott (Scott 1956: 1956: 214) 214) ALLELOMIMETIC BEHAVIOR: " ..... . any behavior havior in which which animals animals do the the same same thing thing with with some some degree degree of mutual mutual stimulation stimulation and consequent (Scott consequent coordination." coordination." (Scott 1956:215) 1956:215) AMATORY "In AMATORY BEHAVIOR: "In this this phase phase are included included all the the minor minor and and less less stimulating stimulating attentions, such such as licking licking and nuzzling, nuzzling, attentions, which may attach attach two animals animals together." together." which (Southern (Southern 1948:179) 1948:179) CONDITIONING: "Th "Thee process process of acquisition acquisition CONDITIONING: an animal animal of the the capacity capacity to respond respond to by an a given given stimulus stimulus with with the the reflex reflex reaction reaction proper to another another stimulus stimulus (the (the reinforcereinforceproper ment) ment) when when the the two stimuli stimuli are are applied applied concurrently for a number concurrently number of times." times." (Thorpe (Thorpe 1951:6) 1951:6) c Fig. 1. 1. Pronghorn Pronghorn kid kid exhibiting exhibiting resting resting position position on on short-grass prairie. prairie. (Photo (Photo by E. J. Prenzlow) Prenzlow) short-grass a Contribution Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R. b Most Most terms terms were were extracted extracted from a glossary glossary of animal animal behavior terms terms published published by the the Ecology Ecology Society Society behavior of America, Section of Animal America, Section Animal Behavior Behavior and and Sociobiology. Sociobiology. I I Fig. 2. Pronghorn Pronghorn exhibiting death-feigning death-feigning (leti(letikid exhibiting Fig. simulation). (Photo (Photo by E. J. Prenzlow) Prenzlow) simulation). �DEATH Many DEATH FEIGNING FEIGNING (LETISIMULATION): (LETISIMULATION): ""Many GENERALIZATION: ''When "When an association association has has animals animals in in vertebrate vertebrate andinvertegrategroups andinvertegrategroups been been built built up between between a stimulus stimulus and a typically typically become become immobilized immobilized for a time time when when sufficiently sufficiently excited excited by a suddenly suddenly presented presented visual or a repeated visual stimulus stimulus repeated tactual tactual stimulus." (Maier and Schneirla stimulus." Schneirla 1935:222) 1935:222) DISTRACTION DISPLAY OR INJURY DISTRACTION DISPLAY INJURY FEIGNING: ""Behavior Behavior of some some bird species species when when a threat threat to their their young young persists." persists." (Welty 1962:334) 1962:334) DOMINANCE-SUBORDINATION DOMINANCE- SUBORDINATION RELATIONRELATIONSHIP: "The "The behavior behavior of one one individual individual consists consists of a threat threat or actual actual fighting fighting while while the the other other individual individual remains remains passive passive or attempts attempts to escape." escape." (Scott (Scott 1956:216) 1956:216) DRIVE: ""The The complex of internal internal and external external states states and and stimuli stimuli leading leading to a given given behavior." havior." (Thorpe (Thorpe 1951:4) 1951:4) DRUMMING: Produetion of sounds DRUMMING: ""Production sounds by beating beating the the wings wings as in the the Ruffed Grouse Grouse may also refer refer to other other instrumental instrumental sounds, sounds, such such as beating beating of a tatoo tatoo with the the bill, as in woodpeckers." woodpeckers." (Wing 1956:508) 1956:508) ELIMINATIVE BEHAVIOR: "Behavior ELIMINATIVE "Behavior associated ciated with with the the elimination elimination of urine urine and feces from the the body." body." (Scott (Scott 1956:214) 1956:214) EPIMELETIC V1OR: ""Defined Defined a_s EPIMELETIC BEBA BEHAVIOR: as the the giving giving of care or attention attention ..... . includes includes what what has has been been called by the the more mote specific terms terms of attentive attentive behavior behavior andnurtul'ance." and nurturance." (Scott (Scott 1956:214) 1956:214) response, response, there there is a tendency tendency to respond respond to all similar similar stimuli." stimuli." (Scott (Scott and FredericFredericson son 1951:286) 1951:286) ESTIVATION: "To pass pass the the summer summer in a torESTIV ATION: ''To por." (Webster (Webster 1956:282) 1956:282).• por." ET-EPIMELETIC BERA BEHAVIOR: "Defined as calET-EPIMELETIC V1OR: "Defined ling or signaling signaling for care and and attention attention and and is very widely found found in in animals animals which which give some care care to the the young" young" ..... . ""This behavior some This behavior could be called infantile infantile except except that that it also occurs (Scott occurs in adult adult animals." animals." (Scott 19;>6:214) 1956:214) EXTINCTION: "If "If a secondary secondary stimulus stimulus associated with with a response response is repeated repeated without without ciated reinforcement reinforcement by · a primary primary stimulus, stimulus, the the response will tend tend to die out out (extinction)." (extinction)." response ((Scott Scott and Fredericson Fredericson 1951:286) 1951:286) FLIGHT REACTION REACTION (Escape (Escape Reaction): Reaction): ...... "on "on suddenly suddenly encountering encountering an enemy, enemy, the the animal animal shows shows a characteristic characteristic escape escape reaction, reaction, specific for sex, age, enemy enemy and and surroundings, surroundings, as soon soon as the the enemy enemy approaches approaches within within a definite definite distance distance (the (the flight flight distance)." distance)." (Hediger (Hediger 1950:19) 1950:19) FREEZE: A young FREEZE: ""A young bird bird or other other animal animal that that becomes motionless motionless when when disturbed disturbed or when when becomes danger freeze'." (Wing danger threatens threatens is said to ''freeze'." 1956:509) 1956:509) G EOTROPISM: Tropism GEOTROPISM: Tropism in which which a gravitational gravitational attraction attraction is the the orienting orienting factor." factor." (Webster (Webster 1956:347) 1956:347) HABITUATION: ""The The relatively relatively :permanent permanent waning of a response response as a result result of repeated repeated stimulation stimulation which which is not not followed by any kind (Thorpe kind of reinforcement." reinforcement." (Thorpe 1956:54) 1956:54) HELIOTROPISM: ""Phototropism Phototropism in which which sunlight (Webster light is the the orienting orienting stimulus." stimulus." (Webster 1956:383) 1956:383) HERD Usually among HERD DISTANCE: DISTANCE: ""Usually among socially socially organized organized groups groups of mammals mammals there there is a marked marked tendency tendency to keep a definite definite distance distance from one one another. another. In many many cases cases this distance tance is is already already determined determined by the the fact that that each group group lives lives in its particular particular territory, territory, which which is demarcated demarcated specifically." specifically." (Hediger (Hediger 1955:80) 1955:80) HIBERNATION: "The "The torpic torpic condition condition for passing passing cold periods." periods." (Wing 1956:510) 1956:510) IMPRINTING: "Imprinting young "Imprinting results results when when aayoung animal at an impressionistic impressionistic age, when when the the animal learning threshold threshold is low, is exposed exposed to a learning meaningful stimulus stimulus or to some suitable suitable meaningful substitute. Normally Normally at sueh such timesthestimutimes the stimusubstitute. lus that that becomes becomes imprinted, imprinted, so to speak, lus initiates initiates persisting persisting behavior behavior that that may designate the the animal's animal's activities activities for the the rest rest of nate its life." (Allee (Allee et al.1949:7) al. 1949:7) Behavior concerned INGESTIVE BEHAVIOR: ""Behavior concerned with the the taking taking of solids and liquids liquids into into with the the digestive digestive tract." tract." (Scott (Scott 1956:214) 1956:214) INSTINCT: INSTINCT: ''"I1 will tentatively tentatively define define an instinct instinct as a hierarchically hierarchically organized organized nervous nervous mechanism which which is susceptible susceptible to certau;i certain primary, primary, nism releasing releasing and directing directing impulses impulses of internal internal external origin, origin, and which which responds responds as well as external to those those impulses impulses by coordinated coordinated movements movements that contribute contribute to the the maintenance maintenance of the the that individual individual and and to the the species." species." (Tinbergen (Tinbergen 1951:112) 1951:112) INVESTIGATIVE BEHAVIOR: BEHAVIOR: "Sensory "Sensory inspecinspection (Scott tion of the the environment." environment." (Scott 1956:215) 1956:215) oduces adapLEARNING: "The "The process process which which pr produces tive tive change change in individual individual behavior behavior as the the result result of experience. experience. It is regarded regarded as distinct maturatinct from fatigue, fatigue, sensory sensory adaptation adaptationmaturation tion and and the the results results of SUl'gical surgical or othe!' othe!" injury." injury." (Thorpe (Thorpe 1951:5) 1951:5) �LEARNING ABILITY: ""The The ability ability to combine combine (or (or associate) associate) two or morecontiguousexperimore contiguous experiences the contiguity ences in cases in which which the contiguity is is determined (Maier determined by the the environment." environment." (Maier and Schneirla Schneirla 1935:343) 1935:343) LEERLAUF REACTION: REACTION: ""The 'Leerlauf' reLEERLAUF The 'Leerlauf' action sists of exaggerated action con consists exaggerated fright fright at unimunimportant (Rew,ger portant petty petty things," things." (Hediger 1950:29) 1950:29) MINCING: Before attacking, MINCING: ""Before attacking, the the mouse mouse circles around around or near near the the opponent, opponent, with the the body hunched hunched up and taking taking short, short, rapid rapid steps. This This behavior behavior may be interpreted interpreted as a combination bination of attacking attacking and and defensive defensive postures, postures, or it may be a warning warning signal signal similar similar to tbe the above. (Scott above."" (Scott and and Fredericson Fredericson 1951:274) 1951:274) MOLT MOLT MIGRATION: MIGRATION: "A "A movement movement of waterfowl to secluded secluded marshes marshes for the the post-breedpost-breeding ing molt." (Wing (Wing 1956:512) 1956:512) MONOGAMY: Single marriage." (Webster MONOGAMY: ""Single marriage." (Webster 1956:545 ) 1956:545) ORTHOKINESIS: speed ORTHOKINESIS:" " speed or frequency frequency of locomotion locomotion dependent dependent on intensity intensity of stimustimulation." lation." (Fraenkel (Fraenkel and and Gunn Gunn 1940:134) 1940:134) PECK-DOMINANCE: ""The The dominance dominance of one one bird bird over over another another in most most of their their contacts." contacts." (Wing 1956:513) 1956:513) PECK The rank PECK ORDER: ORDER: ""The rank of several several members members of a social hierarchy; hierarchy; arrangement arrangement according according to dominance.'' dominance." (Wing 1956:513) 1956:513) tq PHOTOTAXIS: ""A A taxis taxis in which which light light is the directing directing factor.' factor." ' (Webster (Webster 1956:635) 1956:635) POLYANDRY: POLYANDRY: " ... ... is the the mating mating of one one female female with with more more than than one one male." male." (Wing 1956:514) 1956:514) POLYGAMY: Mating of one POLYGAMY: ""Mating one male male with with more more than than one female.'' female." (Wing 1956:514) 1956:514) PROMISCUITY: ""Copulation Copulation without without forming forming a mating mating bond.'' bond." (Wing 1956:514) 1956:514) REFLEX: innate relatively relatively simple simple and REFLEX: '"An ' An innate stereotyped response response involving involving the the central central stereotyped nervous system system and and occurring occurring very very shortly shortly nervous after after the the stimulus stimulus which which evokes evokes it. It specifically involves involves a part part only only of the the organism, organism, though though the the whole whole may be affected, affected, and is usually a response response to localized stimuli." stimuli." usually (Thorpe (Thorpe 1951:2) 1951:2) RELEASER: "Any "Any specific feature feature or complex complex RELEASER: features in a situation situation eliciting eliciting an inof featu.Fes stinctive stinctive activity activity or mood. mood. Social Releaser: Releaser: Any specific feature feature or complex complex feature feature of an organism organism eliciting eliciting an instinctive instinctive activity activity in another another individual individual of the the same or another another species." species." (Thorpe (Thorpe 1951:5) 1951:5) RUTIING An extraordinary RUTTING DISTANCE; DISTANCE: ""An extraordinary phyphysical proximity proximity between between partners partners ..... . almost almost constant proximity during the rutting constant proximity during the rutting season." season." (Hediger (Hediger 1955:75) 1955:75) SEMANTIC COLOR: A signal COLOR: «"A signal cQlor, color, such such as white in the the tail of the Meadowlark." Meadowlark." (Wing (Wing w.hite 1966:515) 1956:515) SEQUESTATION Calls designed SEQUESTATION NOTES: ""Calls designed or used used to keep others others of a flock from coming coming too close." Wing 1956:515) close." ((Wing 1956:515) SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: "The ORGANIZATION: "The true true social organization organization may may therefore therefore be defined defined as an aggregation aggregation of individuals individuals into into a fairly fairly well integrated integrated and self-consistent self-consistent group group in in which o n the which the the unity unity is based based up· upon the interinterdependence dependence of the the separate separate organisms organisms and and upon upon their their responses responses one one to another.'' another." (Maier (Maier and Schneirla Schneirla 1935:164) 1935:164) SOCIAL PARASITISM: "Laying SOCIAL "Laying eggs in in the the nest nest of another another bird, bird, as in in the the Old World Cuckoo." (Wing 1956:516) 1956:516) Cuckoo." SOCIAL Such a relationship SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP: RELATIONSHIP: ""Such relationship is defined defined as regular regular and repeatable repeatable behavior behavior between between two or more more individuals, individuals, and and it it in turn turn may be be described described in terms terms of of the the patpatterns terns of behavior behavior exhibited exhibited by the the individuals individuals ttaking aking part!' part." (Scott (Scott 1956:215) 1956:215) STIMULUS, PRIMARY (or Cer(or RELEASERS): RELEASERS): ""Certain tain responses responses are automatically automatically given given to rather rather specific stimuli. stimuli. Such Such rnsponses responses form the raw material material of learning, learning, usually usually appearappearthe ing early early in development." development." (Scott (Scott and and Freding Fredericson ericson 1951:286) 1951:286) STIMULUS, SECONDARY: SECONDARY: ""... change to STIMULUS, . . . a change which which no response response is automa1tically automatically given.'' given." (Scott (Scott and Frederiscon Frederiscon 1951:286) 1951:286) STRESS, SYSTEMIC: ' The expre:ssion SYSTEMIC: '"The expression systemic systemic stress stress is is used used here here to denote denote a condition condition in to function in which-due which-due function or damage-exdamage-extensive tensive regions regions of the the body deviate deviate from their normal normal resting resting state." state." (Selye (Selye 1950:9) 1950:9) their STRESSOR: Any stimulus STRESSOR: ""Any stimulus causing causing systemic systemic stress.'' stress." (Selye (Selye 1950) 1950) "1. Locomotion Locomotion either either diirectly directly towards TAXIS: "l. towards or directly directly away from from a source source of stimustimulation."" ""2. Locomotory behaLvior behavior involving involving lation. 2. Locomotory steering reaction." reaction." ""3. The spatial spatial correecorreca steering 3. The tion or turning r~ tion movement movement ((or turning component) component) resulting ((Thorpe Thorpe 1951:3) sulting in orientation." orientation." 1951:3) TELOT AXIS: " ..... . direct TELOTAXIS: direct attainment attainment of orienorientation, tation, without without deviation. deviation. 01ientation Orientation to a source source of stimulus stimulus as if it were were a goal. goal. Known only in in response response to light." light." (Fraen(FraenKnown Gunn 1940:134) 1940:134) kel and Gunn �TERRITORY: ""Territoriality Territoriality is based based both both on a positive reaction to a given positive \reaction given space and., and, within eaction within that, that, often, often, on on a negative negative rreaction to invaders c ies, except invaders of the the same spe. species, except for a mate mate or mates. mates. Varied Varied types types of territorial territorial defense defense are known known among among birds birds when when any defended egarded as being defended area area is rregarded being a 'teni'territory' tory'."." (Allee (Allee et al. 1949:412) 1949:412) THERMOTAXIS: ""A A taxis taxis in which which a temperatemperature ture gradient gradient constitutes constitutes the the directive directive force or the the regulation regulation of body temperature. temperature. (Webster ster 1956:882) 1956:882) TRIAL-AND-ERROR TRIAL-ANn-ERROR LEARNING; LEARNING: "The "The developdevelopment ment of an association, association, as the the result result of reinforcement during reinforcement during appetitive appetitive behavior, behavior, between between a stimulus stimulus or situation situation and and an independent dependent motor motor action action as an item item in the the behavior en both behavior wh when both stimulus stimulus and motor motor action action precede precede the the reinforcement reinforcement in in time time and the the motor motor action action is not not the the inevitable inevitable inherited herited response response to to the the reinforcement." reinforcement." (Thorpe (Thorpe 1951:7) 1951:7) TROPISM: "Involuntary "Involuntary movement movement of an organism ganism or of any of its parts parts involving involving turning turning or curvat,,u,e curvature and induc-ed induced autoautomatically matically or in response response to to stimuli." stimuli." (Webster ster 1956:912) 1956:912) TROPOTAXIS: "" .. ... . attainment attainment or orientation orientation direct, direct, by turning turning to less less or to more more stimustimulated lated side, by simultaneous simultaneous comparison comparison of intensities of stimulation stimulation on tbe the two sides. sides. intensities No deviation deviation required." required." (Fraenkel (Fraenkel andGmm and Gunn 1940:134) 1940:134) An act performed VESTIGIAL BEHAVIOR: BEHAVIOR: ""An performed by a bird bird that that resembles resembles an act of a distant distant relative relative but but which which seems seems no longer longer functional tional in the the former." former." (Wing 1956:517) 1956:517) tendency to escape escape has has been been WILDNESS: ""The The tendency called ''wildness'. wildness' . ((Scott Scott and and Fredericson Fredericson 1951:275) 1951:275) WINNOWING: "Aerial performance performance of of aa snipe snipe WINNOWING: "Aerial during during which which a special special sound sound is is made." made." 1956:517) (Wing 1956:517) LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Allee, W. W. C. C.,, A. E. Emerson, Emerson, 0. O. Park, Park, T. Park, Park, and 1949. and K. P. Schmidt. Schmidt. 1949. Principles Principles of animal animal eeology. ecology. W. B. Saunders, Saunders, Phila., Phila., Pa. Pa. Beach, F. 1954. F. A. A.,, and and J. J. Jaynes. Jaynes. 1954. Effects Effects of early experience upon the the behavior experience up'on behavior of animals. animals. Psycho!. Psychol. Bull. 51:239:263. 51:239:263. Fraenkel, Fraenkel, G. G. S., and and D D.. L. Gunn. Gunn. 1940. 1940. The The orientation Clarendon orientation of animals. animals. Clarendon Press, Press, Oxford. Hediger, Hediger, H. 1950. 1950. Wild animals animals in captivity. captivity. Butterworth, Butterworth, London. London. ___ 1955. Psychology of animals animals in in zoos - - ·.. 191 55. Psychology and circuses. Criterion circuses. Criterion Books, Books, New York. Maier, N. N. R. F., F., and and T. C. C. Schneirla. Schneirla. 1935. 1935. Principles psychology. McGrawPrinciples of animal animal psychology. Hill, New York. York. Scott, Scott, J. P. 1956. 1956. The The analysis analysis of social organization ganization in animals. animals. Ecol. 37:213-220. 37:213-220. ____ _ _ and E. Fredericson. 1951. Frederic son. 1951. The The causes causes of fighting mice and fighting in mice and rats. rats. Physiol. Physiol. Zool. 24( 4)273:808. 24(4)273:308. Selye, Selye, H. 1950. 1950. Stress. Stress. Acta, Inc., Inc., Montreal. Montreal. Southern, H. H. N. 1948. Southern, 1948. Sexual and and agressive agressive behavior the wild rabbit. Behaviour behavior in in the rabbit. Behaviour 1:173-194. 1:173-194. Thorpe, W. W. H. 1951. 1951. The The definition definition of terms terms Thorpe, used in animal animal behavior behavior studies. studies. Bull. Animal Animal used Behavior Behavior 9:34-40. 9:34-40. 1956. Leaming Learning and and instinct instinct in ani- - - · 19i56. mals. Hal!'Vard Harvard Univ. Univ. Press, Press, Cambridge, Cambridge, Mass. mals. Tinbergen, 1951. Tinbergen, N. 1951. The study study of instinct. instinct. ClarendonPress, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Webster'ss New New Collegiate Collegiate Dictionary. Dictionary. 1956. 1956. G. G. Webster' and C. C. Merriam Merriam Co. Co.,, Springfield, Springfield, Mass. and C. 1962. 1962. The The life of birds. birds. W. B. Welty, JJ.. C. Saunders Co., Phila., Phila., Pa. Pa. and London. Saunders: London. W. 1956. 1956. Natural history of birds. Wing, L. W. Natural history birds. The The Ronald Ronald Press, Press, Ne,;,;, New York. E. J. Prenzlow Prenzlow Asst. Asst. Wildlife Researcher Researcher April, 1970 April, 1970 �,-i?' Outdoor Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED ADO PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLOR COLORADO DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES J .'Ff:f;. DIVISION DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME. FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet 4ft Number Number 81 FENCING FENCING FOR MULE DE:ER DEER a At tthe he Little Little Hills Experiment Experiment Station, Station, near near Meeker, Meeker, Colorado, Colorado, two major major fence-building fence-building projects projects have have been been completed completed and tested, tested, permitting mitting the the enclosure enclosure of wild mule mule deer deer in pastures tures or paddocks paddocks under under conditions conditions varying varying from near near normal normal to artificial. artificial. While not not designed designed to test test experimentally experimentally their their effectiveness effectiveness in controlling trolling deer, deer, these these fences fences do provide provide useful useful information information based based on the the experiences experiences of Colorado Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks personnel. personnel. Pasture Pasture fences fences are now about about 20 20 years years old and are still in good condition. condition. Mule deer, deer, under under stress, stress, will jump jump over over or break break holes holes in fence that that normally normally might might be considered ""deer proof". Expelience Experience has indiindiconsidered deer proof". ecifications and costs cated cated that that minimum minimum sp specifications costs fencing stressed stressed animals animals in, or out, out, of large large for fencing enclosures enclosures in rough rough terrain terrain are: 1. 1. Height Height rangerange-7 7 feet 10 10 inches inches to 9 feet (the (the last last usually usually for downhill downhill jumps). jumps). Posts-juniper pressure treated, treated, 12 12 2. Post s-juniper or pressure long with 3 inch inch top inside inside bark. feet long Woven wire-39 wire-39 inches, inches, not not lighter lighter than than 3. Woven 12 2 gauge, a l and line 12 1/ 1/2 gauge, spacing spacing of vertic' vertical line wires not more more than than six six inches. inches. Wire with zig-zagged not line wires wires m may superior. line ay be sup erior. 4. No. 11 4. Barbed Barbed wire-standard wire-standard 11 gauge gauge with with two barbs. barbs. Longhurst Longhurst et al. (1962), (1962), and Yoakum Yoakum and Dasmann Dasmann (1969) (1969) recommend recommend No. NO.99 or No. 10 10 gauge gauge smooth smooth wire. 5. Gates Gates and gully-crossing gully-crossing panelspanels-vari5. variable, but but framed framed in 2" x 10" native native lumber, lumber, bolted bolted corners corners and braces, braces, covered covered by woven woven wire, and hung hung from standard standard hinges hinges of strap strap iron iron with with bolt bolt fastenings fastenings or suspended suspended from cables (Figs. (Figs. 11 and 2). cables 6. beginning at 6. Basic Basic line line fence designdesign-beginning ground level, level, one one strand strand of barbed barbed wire midground between ground ground and bottom bottom of woven woven wire, way between fastened fastened loosely loosely to mesh mesh wire above at two or three three points points between between posts; posts; two or three three aa Contiibution Contlibution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R. W-38-R. Fig. 1. 1. Typ,ical Typical gate gate in a line line fence. fence. (Photo (Photo by Richard Richard M. Bartrnann) Bartmann) M. Fig. 2. woven 2. Gully panel panel suspended suspended by barbed barbed wire wire to woven wire Photo by Richard wire fence fence above. above. ((Photo Richard M. M. Bartmann). Bartmann). �strands strands of barbed barbed wire reinforced reinforced by twisted twisted stays at bottom stays fastened fastened bottom to woven wire (Figs. (Figs. 3 and 4). ~. Feuce Fence corner corner at at angle angle showing showing methods methods of bracing. bracing. {Photo (Photo by Richard Richard M. Bartmann) Bartmann) Fig. 5. Figs. 3 and and 4. 4. Basic Basic line line fences fences of woven woven and barbed barbed Figs. wire wire supported supported (top) (top) by juniper, juniper, and and (bottom) (bottom) by pressure-treated posts. posts. (Photos (Photos by Richard Richard M. M. BartBartpressure-treated mann mann and William William T. T. McKean) McKean) was furnished furnished by the the contractor, contractor, and and posts posts were cut largely largely on or near near the the site. Recommendations Recommendations are as follows: 1. 1. For For wild mule mule deer, enclosed enclosed or or driven driven into a fence-use fence-use above above minimum minimum specifications. specifications. 2. For and strength For drift fences-height fences-height strength may educed, bottom or may be considerably considerably rreduced, bottom and/ and/or top wires eliminated, eliminated, and and width width of woven woven wire reduced reduced to 82 32 inches. inches. 3. For fences fences following following contour contour of steep steep mountain mountain sllopes, slopes, where where deer approach approach from uphill uphill side-height should be increased increased by adding adding a side-height should third tier of 39 39 inch inch woven Fence lines lines in in third woven wire. wire. Fence areas areas of deep drift drift snow, where where crusting crusting is likely, sholllld should also be increased increased 39 39 inches inches in in height. height. 4. areas where 4. In areas where persistent persistent collisions collisions between tween deer and fencing fencing occur, occur, or are anticipated, pated, injury injury to deer may be reduced reduced by suspending pending and securely securely fastening fastening opaque opaque material material such as bu1 rlap, plastic, mesh. burlap, plastic, or canvas canvas to fence fence mesh. 7. 7. Line Line posts posts set set 24 24 to 30 30 inches inches deep at 1212- to 16-foot 16-foot intervals; intervals; corner corner and brace brace posts posts set 36 er 36 to 48 48 inches inches deep; sharp and obtuse obtuse corn corner angles reinforced reinforced with with a "deadman" "deadman" in addition addition angles LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED normal pracing; bracing; brace brace posts posts set at 6 to 10 10 to normal feet feet from from corners corners and notched notched for braces, braces, which Longhurst, Parks, Longhurst, W. W. M., M. M. B. Jones, Jones, R. R. Parks, spiked to posts posts (Fig. 5). are spiked L. L. W. W. Neubauei", Neubauer, and M. M. W. Cummings. Cummings. 1962. Jl<'ences Fences for controlling controlling deer deer damage. damage. 1962. 1962, 8. Costs-In Costs-In 1962, a series series of paddocks paddocks Univ. Calif., CaliL, Davis Agric. Exp. Sta., Circ. involving 7,788 7,788 feet, feet, or 1.475 1.475 miles, miles, of fence, fence, involving 514. 514. 15 15 p. many many corners, corners, 500 500 posts, posts, and 10 10 large large hinged hinged Yoakum, J. J.,, and W. P. Dasmann. Dasmann. 1969. 1969. Habitat Habitat gates, gates, cost $0.59 $0.59 per per foot or $3,110 $3,110 per per mile. Yoakum, manipulation practices. practices. Chap. Chap. 14. 14. In In Wildmanipulation Materials Materials cost $1,961 $1,961 when when purchased purchased by the the Management Techniques, Techniques, R. H H.. Giles, life Matnagement Division in Denver Denver on bids and and delivered delivered by Division Jr. 3rd Ed. The Jr. (ed.). (ed.). The Wildlife Society, Division truck to to the the site. Labor Labor on contract contract Division Washington, D. C. Edwards Edwards Brothers, Brothers, Inc., Inc., Washington, was $2,598. $2,598. Division Division personnel personnel surveyed surveyed and Ann Arbor, Mich. 623 p. 623p. dozed fence lines lines with State equipment. equipment. A series of nine nine contiguous contiguous pastures pastures conWilliam T. McKean structed structed 1948-1954, 1948-1954, involved involved 15 15 miles of fence Wildlife Reseracher and cost approximately approximately $5,500 $5,500 per per mile ($1.05 ($1.05 Reseracher 1970 March, 1970 per foot). In this this case all material material and labor labor per �Ql.,1tcloor Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED HE COLO RADO PUBLISHED BY T THE COLORADO DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION AME. FISH DIVISION OF G GAME, FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet 41 . '"' ◄ Number Number 82 RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED PRACTICES PRACTICES IN HABITAT HABITAT MANAGEMEl'lT MANAGEMENT FOR FOR PHEASANTS PHEASANTS IN EASTERN EASTERN COLORADOa COLORADOa Habitat, Habitat, not not hunting, hunting, is the the primary primary limitalimitation tion to pheasant pheasant populations populations in in Colorado. Colorado. FarmFarming ing practices practices are often often the the major major environmenenvironmental tal limitation. limitation. Farmers, Farmers, therefore, therefore, need to know how best best to increase increase pheasant pheasant numbers numbers without without cutting cutting heavily heavily into into their their cropland, cropland, time, time, and and money. money. General General recommendations recommendations are are provided provided in this this paper, paper, some of which which will fit almost almost any any plan plan of farm farm management. management. The The following following basic basic considerations are are the the best best guidelines guidelines for eastern eastern considerations Colorado. Colorado. Basic Basic Considerations Considerations 1. Each 1. Each unit unit of land land possesses possesses a long-term long-term carrying carrying capacity capacity for pheasants, pheasants, just just as a pasture pasture can can sustain sustain only only so many many cattle. cattle. Habitat Habitat deficienanother limit limit the the capacity capacity of cies in one form or another every range range in sustaining sustaining pheasants. pheasants. These These deficiencies must must be determined determined before before habitat habitat deficiencies manipulations manipulations can can be effectively effectively implemented. implemented. 2. The habitat habitat supplement supplement (improvements) (improvements) 2. that alleviates alleviates the the most most important important stress stress permits permits that pheasants to increase increase in number number until until the next next pheasants most most important important stress stress is encountered. encountered. Therefore, Therefore, moderate moderate population population increases increases can can often be attained by using using only only one or a very few tained supplements, supplements, whereas whereas high high pheasant pheasant density density usually requires requires correction correction of many many habitat habitat and and usually other other shortcomings. shortcomings. The The moderate moderate approach approach is usually most most practical. practical. usually 3. Pheasants, Pheasants, and other other wildlife, are a and product product of the the soil, and and their their abundance, abundance, therefore, is directly directly or indirectly indirectly affected affected by soil therefore, fertility. fertility. 4. Weather Weather exerts exerts continual continual stress, stress, direct direct and and indirect, indirect, on pheasant pheasant populations, populations, especially especially important important during during the the nesting nesting season. season. As a result, result, pheasant pheasant fluctuations fluctuations occur from year year to year year regardless nge carrying regardless of ra range carrying capacity. capacity. aContribution from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-37-R. W-37-R. acontribution 5. Although Although irrigated irrigated land land possesses possesses high high potential potential for pheasants pheasants in Colorado, Colorado, economics economics often restrict habitat restrict opportunities opportunities for pheasant pheasant habitat development development on this this land land type. type. Row-crop farming farming Figs. 1-2. 1-2.Small Small grain grain fields bordered bordered by seep seep or marsh marsh Figs. land offer good to excellent excellent winter, winter, and and some some land nesting, nesting, cover. Safe Safe winter winter roosting roosting cover, cover, weeds weeds (top)and necessity on (top)and cattails cattails (bottom),are (bottom),are a vital vital necessity cover(Fig. the High Plains. Safe nesting cover (Fig. 11and and Fig. represent the the only only other other cover essential essential in 3) represent in the the High High Plains Plains region. region. (Photos (Photos by Lee K E. Yeager). Yeager). �and and livestock livestock pasturing pasturing often often preclude preclude game game management. management. In In addition, addition, alfalfa alfalfa fields fields too often often act act as attractive attractive death death traps traps to nesting nesting hens. hens. Populations Populations are are curtailed, curtailed, therefore, therefore, despite despite efforts forts to improve improve food and and cover cover conditions. conditions. Consequently, land wheat sequently, dry dryland wheat farms, farms, or land land borderbordering ing irrigated irrigated fields, fields, usually usually possess possess greater greater potential potential for habitat habitat improvement. improvement. 6. If If fields fields or portions portions of of fields fields remain remain unplowed plowed over over winter, winter, waste waste grains grains left left after after haxvest harvest provide provide an an abundant abundant food supply. supply. General General Recommendations Recommendations 1. 1. Annual Annual weeds weeds such such as as sunflowers sunflowers and and annual annual kochia kochia abound abound as as a natural natural result result of soil disturbance, disturbance, the the method method by by which which productive productive soil attempts attempts to heal heal its its wounds. wounds. It It is doubtful doubtful that that many many farmers farmers will will ever ever change change their their thinking thinking and and accept accept weeds weeds as anything anything but but a curse curse and and an an eyesore. eyesore. However, However, the the individual individual truly truly interested interested in wildlife wildlife should should manage manage and and utilize utilize weeds weeds where where they they do no harm, harm, because because they they are are a no- or low-cost low-cost asset asset in in farm-game farm-game production. production. Where Where appeai·ance appearance is of great great importance, importance, as as around around buildings, tall grasses, buildings, pernnnial perennial legumes, legumes, tall grasses, and and shrubs shrubs can can frequently frequently be be substituted. substituted. 2. Manipulation Manipulation of habitat habitat to achieve achieve essenessential tial vegetative vegetative height height and and density density is more more imporimportant tant than than species species composition. composition. Often Often weeds weeds become become too dense dense and and matted matted to attain attain adequate adequate height. height. Many Many sodded sodded grasses grasses which which lack lack height height and and density density and and lodge lodge over over winter, winter, reduce reduce residual residual early-spring early-spring nesting nesting cover. In In winter, winter, pheasants pheasants need need taller taller cover cover (2 feet or more), fairly fairly open underneath. underneath. Alfalfa Alfalfa or alfalfa-grass alfalfa-grass mixopen tures tures best best typify typify good nesting nesting cover cover composition, composition, whereas tall tall sunflowers sunflowers and and annual annual kochia kochia whereas provide an an excellent excellent life-form life-form for winter winter resting resting provide cover. cover. 3. Pheasants Pheasants and and other other farm farm game game need need all requirements requirements close close at at hand. hand. In In addition, addition, the the birds birds live along along cover cover edges. edges. Reduction Reduction of field size, live strip farming farming and and interspersion interspersion of crops, crops, in in strip association association with with permanent permanent cover cover areas, areas, provide provide close association association of food and and cover cover needs needs and and close edge effects. effects. edge 4. Wheat Wheat stubble, stubble, corn corn stalks, stalks, and and other other farm farm crops crops preferably preferably should should remain remain standing standing over over winter, winter, but but plowing plowing of these these types types early early in in the the spring spring is essential essential if if nest nest destruction destruction later later in in the the year is to be avoided. avoided. year 5. Burning Burning of roadways, roadways, fence rows, rows, irrigairrigation ditches, ditches, and and weed weed patches patches is not not recommendrecommendtion ed from the the game game management management standpoint standpoint in in Colorado. In In addition, addition, removal removal of cover cover during during Colorado. critical critical periods, periods, such such as as the the spring spring nesting nesting season, season, frequently frequently perpetuates perpetuates dense, dense, stunted stunted matts matts of annual annual weeds. weeds. eastern Colorado Colorado precipitation precipitation is is below below 6. In eastern optimum fallow optimum for cover cover production. production. Summer Summer fallow and and other other techniques techniques used used in crop crop production production may may also also be applied applied to provide provide winter winter and and nesting nesting cover. cover. Woody perennials perennials are are a good good substitute. substitute. nesting 7. Livestock Livestock should should be excluded excluded from from nesting and and winter winter cover cover areas. areas. Good nesting nesting and excellent roo, roosting Fig. 3. Good s ting cover like lacking on the High Plains. Plains. It is more this is often Jacking readily available available to pheasants pheasants if adjacent adjacent to food food sources sources such such as small small grain fields. fields. (Photo by Lee E. Yeager), Yeager)· Recommendations Recommendations for lncreasi~d Increased Pheasant Pheasant Production Production 1. - alfalfa cover 1. Establish Establish permanent permanent grass. grass-alfalfa cover along road road and and irrigation irrigation ditchE!S. ditches. Most Most road road along ditches as ditches are are not not as highly highly productive productive as farmground, but but provide provide valuablle valuable edge edge cover cover farmground, -.when-not.farmed. Alf.alf.a.and wheat.gr.ass are ·:wh-ennot.far.med.Alfalf.a ..and tall tall.whea±gI:ass are recommended. recommended. 2. Plow toured, narrow Plow con contoured, narrow strips strips in in tightly tightly sodded unfarmed sodded draws, draws, drainages, drainages, and and otlner other unfarmed areas. areas. Reseed Reseed with with tall tall grasses grasses and and legumes. legumes. After After the the initial initial strips strips have have beco,me become vegetated vegetated and stabilized, stabilized, additional additional strips strips ca:n can be establishestablishand ed. 3. Provide Provide nesting nesting cover cover in nan-ow narrow strips strips edges to obtain obtain optimum optimum distribution distribution aalong long field edges of permanent permanent cover; and and intersperse intersperse food and and cover, create create additional additional edge, an,d and reduce reduce field field cover, size where where practical. practical. be 4. Sloughs, Sloughs, seeps seeps and and potholes potholes can can be economically holes economically altered altered by blastingr blasting water water holes �with with ammonium ammonium nitrate. nitrate. The ridges ridges and and mounds mounds of earth earth created created by blasting blasting provide provide growing growing area area for pheasant pheasant cover, and and the the value value of the the overall overall site, site, by addition addition of water, water, is increased increased for waterwaterfowl. Willow plantings plantings provide provide ideal ideal wintering wintering shelter. shelter. 5. Many Many late-nesting late-nesting pheasants pheasants use small small grain grain fields. To protect protect such such nests, nests, post-harvest post-harvest tillage should tillage should be avoided. avoided. habitat 6. Productive Productive pheasant pheasant habitat can can be developed developed by contour contour plowing, plowing, terracing terracing ap.d and seeding, seeding, if necessary, necessary, in small, small, rough, rough, tightlytightlysodded sodded pastures pastures or pasture pasture corners corners bordering bordering cropland. cropland. 3. Large Large shelterbelts shelterbelts may may consume consume considerable siderable land land that that could better better be planted planted to nesting nesting cover. cover. Several Several small small blocks blocks of of plum plum or chokecherry chokecherry thickets, thickets, with with adjacent adjacent stubble stubble 01· or ha.i:vested provide harvested cornfields cornfields on the the leeward leeward silde, side, provide adequate the worst worst adequate shelter shelter and and food in all but but the storms. storms. Most Most windbreaks windbreaks are are not not wid,e wide enough enough to insure insure pheasant pheasant survival survival during during severe severe blizzards. blizzards. Small Small but but rather rather wide patches patches of tall tall sorghum, sorghum, clover, dover, wild plum, plum, or annual annual weeds, weeds, would· would be as as good and and occupy occupy only only a fraction fraction of tihe the acreage. acreage. Snowfence Snowfence may may be used used to hold hold drifting drifting snow snow out out of the the cover. cover. ~.,..-" ,.>... .,,,,,.. ~ .,., ' .• ~ ..... - Fig. 4. Properly graded banks of east-west oriented ditches may may provide excellent winter cover cover and feedinggrounds slope,generalfeeding grounds on the south-facing slope, generally free of snow except except during blizzard condition. condition. (Photo (Photo by Lee Lee E. Yeager) Yeager) Fig. 5. pheasant winter cover provided provided 5. Blizzard-proof Blizzard-proofpheasant by river-bottom Platte river-bottom shrubs and grasses, South Platte Valley, Colorado. Colorado. Woody Woody species species are primarily Valley, snowberry snowberry (Symphoricarpos (Symphoricarpos r;op.), sup.), wild rose and willow; grasses are cord (Spartina (Spartifw willow; spp.), reed (Phragmites (Phragmites spp.), spp.), and various rushes rushes and sedges. sedges. Cottonwood trees of various sizes sizes often form a Cottonwood overstory. (Photo by Lee Lee E. E. Yeager) Yeager) partial overstory. Recommendation for Increased Increased Pheasant Pheasant Recommendation for Survival Survival 1. Small Small strips strips or patches, patches, too wet or weedy weedy to cut, can can be left left standing standing when when harvesting harvesting small small grains. grains. These These provide provide ideal ideal food-cover combinations broods and wintering and wintering combinations for broods pheasants. pheasants. 2. Winter Winter cover should should be closely associated associated with food sources, sources, often often easily easily accomplished accomplished by with altering altering field boundaries. boundaries. Cedar, plum plum and and other other low-growing, low-growing, 4. Cedar, ground-hugging ground-hugging shrubs shrubs should should be planted planted instead of tall-growing tall-growing trees, which self-prune self-prune their their stead trees, which lower branches bing crows branches and and attract attract nest-rob nest-robbing crows and magpies. magpies. and power and 5. Plant Plant field and and fence fence corners, corners, power and telephone telephone right-of-ways, right-of-ways, and and similar similar spots spots with with small small clumps clumps of wild wild plums plums or similar similar shrubs. shrubs. Cultivate woodyplantingsduringthefirst woody plantings during the first 6. Cultivate few years then years to insure insure survival survival and and growth, growth, then permit weeds and and grasses grasses to retutrn. return. Plants Plants permit adapted used. adapted to semi-arid semi-arid regions regions should should be used. �7. Avoid around farm Avoid developments developments around farm buildings where buildings where pets pets and and human human disturbances disturbances conflict conflict with with pheasant pheasant use. Situate Situate winter winter cover at different different locations locations to distribute distribute the the birds birds and and at reduce reduce competition competition for food and and cover. 8. Utilize Utilize surplus surplus water, water, if if available, available, to produce produce winter winter cover. Tail-water Tail-water pits pits and seepage seepage or drainage drainage ditches ditches are are ideal ideal cover-producing cover-producing areas. areas. Also utilize utilize natural natural streams streams and and riverbotriverbottoms toms for this this purpose purpose whenever whenever possible. possible. 9. Use Use pesticides, pesticides, especially especially insecticides, insecticides, as little as possible. little possible. Avoid Avoid application application of these these poisons, poisons, if if possible, possible, when when young young pheasants pheasants are are using using farm farm crops. crops. Recommendations Recommendations for Increased Increased Pheasant Pheasant Harvest Harvest Increased production and Increased production and survival survival of pheasants little value pheasants are are of oflittle value if if greater greater harvest harvest can can not not be affected. affected. Currently, Currently, Colorado Colorado pheasants pheasants are grossly grossly underharvested. underharvested. Large unbroken unbroken are Large fields fields and and sparse sparse cover cover induce induce roosters roosters to run, run, easily easily escaping escaping the the gun. gun. There There is no easy easy solution solution this problem, to this problem, but but cover can can be manipulated manipulated to the the end end of adequate adequate annual annual kill. kill. 1. 1. Reduce Reduce size of fields fields and and summer summer fallow fallow cover strips strips to provide provide tall, tall, dense dense cover that that will hold hold birds birds until until they they are are flushed flushed by dog or hunter. hunter. 2. Disk Disk narrow narrow strips strips around around field edges and and cover cover patches patches to reduce reduce escape escape routes routes fo1· for running running birds. birds. Distribute winter winter resting resting cover cover to reduce reduce 3. Distribute pheasant concentrations concentrations and and provide provide more more hunthuntpheasant ra PRINTING AND PUBLI~A,Tl0NS ~ ~f11NTINGAHDPU•~1CATICNS' lI:'.iII a COLOnAOO COLORADO STA,,Tl STATE VNl~o.ii:il'I' UNIVERSITY l:m;)l i;lci~I ing ing opportunity. opportunity. Hold pheasants pheasants away away from livestock livestock and and buildings, buildings, which which serve serve as refuges refuges during during hunting hunting seasons. seasons. SELECTED SELECTED REFERENCES REFERENCES Allen, D. L. (ed.) 1956. 1956. Pheasants Pheasants in North North America. America. Stackpole Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Harrisburg, Pa. Pa. and and Wildlife Mgmt. Mgmt. Inst., Inst., Washington, Washington, D.C. 490 p. Keck, A off. Colorado A. L. 1963. 1963. Planting Planting can can pay payoff. Colorado Outdoors Outdoors 12(2):7-11. 12(2):7-11. Lyon, Lyon, L. JJ.. 1,961. 1961. Evaluation Evaluation of the the influences influences of woody cover on pheasant pheasant hunting hunting success. success. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Mgmt. 25(4):421-428. 25(4):421-428. Madson, J. 1962. 1962. The The ring-necked ring-necked pheasant. pheasant. Olin Madson, Mathieson Mathieson Chemical Chemical Corp., East East Alton, Alton, Illinois. linois. 104 104 p. Sandfort, Sandfort, W. W. W. W. 1963. 1963. We can can have have more more pheasants. pheasants. Colorado Colorado Outdoors Outdoors 12(2):1-6. 12(2):1-6. Swope, H. H. M. 1963. 1963. Planting Planting tips. tips. Colorado Colorado Outdoors doors 12(2):9. 12(2):9. ___ 1963. 1963. The The fallacy fallacy of burning. burning. Colorado Colorado Outdoors Outdoors 12(3.):41--42. 12(3):41-42. Wagner, F. H., C. D. Wagner, D. Besadny Besadny andC. and C. Kabat.1965. Kabat. 1965. Population Population ecology and and management management of Wisconsin Wisconsin pheasants. pheasants. Wisconsin Wisconsin Cons. Cons. Dept. Tech. Bull. 34. 168 168 p. Tech. W anen D. Snyder Warren Snyder Wildlife Reseai·cher Researcher Wildlife July, July, 1970 (revised March, March, 1975) 1975) �, QUICl60r Facts ~acts Outdoor PUBLISHED THE COLORADO PUBLISH ED BY TH E COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF WILDLIFE WILDLIFE DIVI SION OF Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information ,4' I~ \" '. •... ~ r Number 82 Revised Revised May 1982 RECOMMENDED HABITAT HABITAT MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES PRACTICES RECOMMENDED FOR PHEASANTS PHEASANTS IN IN EASTERN EASTERN COLORADO COLORADO! 1 FOR Pheasants in Colorado, Colorado, as elsewhere, elsewhere, are are almost almost Pheasants totally dependent on farmland farmland for existence existence primaritotally dependent primarily because because soil tillage tillage yields yields the growing, the vigorous vigorous growing, seed producing and tame tame annuals essential to producing wild and annuals essential the intensive farming the species. However, modern, modern, intensive fanning is often the major major environmental limitation to often the environmental limitation pheasants. Therefore, habitat habitat management management must pheasants. Therefore must be based on an an understanding understanding of both both the limiting based the limiting factors and and the qualities of fanning farming and and factors the beneficial beneficial qualities farmland before effective effective manipulations can be imfarmland manipulations can plemented. plemented. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS CONSIDERATIONS BASIC 1. The The can-ying carrying capacity capacity, or capability capability of a unit 1. unit of land to sustain sustain pheasants, pheasants, is primarily based on soil land primarily based fertility, climate, and agricultural agricultural practices. Eastern fertility, climate, and practices. Eastern Colorado receives below optimum optimum precipitation Colorado receives precipitation yielding below optimum optimum plant pheasants. yielding plant cover for pheasants. considered marginal marginal ford1·yland for dry 1and farming Sites considered farming will be marginal capacity to sustain sustain pheasants. pheasants. marginal in their their capacity capacity is important, 2. Carrying Carrying capacity important, but but pheasant pheasant populations year to year year due to populations will fluctuate fluctuate from year constantly interacting and and changing changing variables constantly interacting variables of climate, land land use, and and predation. predation. The The most most favorable favorable climate, years pheasants are are those years for pheasants those with with warm warm spring pring temperatures and moisture which which temperatures and adequate adequate soil moisture stimulates early early growth growth of vegetation. vegetation. stimulates 4. Winter Winter wheat and its residual stubble, when left wheat and its residual tubble, when left standing over winter, winter, are are the most most important important vegetavegetastanding tion types types used by pheasants pheasants throughout throughout a major tion major portion of the Colorado. Most portion the year year in eastern eastern Colorado. successful nests are hatched hatched in green green wheat that successful ne ts are wheat so that pheasants most areas areas can can be considered considered a 2nd crop pheasants in most from wheat wheat fields fields.. Thei-efore, Therefore, wheat wheat fields, adjacent adjacent roadsides, drainages, and and other other unfarmed unfarmed areas roadsides, drainages, areas possess the greatest greatest opportunities opportunities for su sustaining and possess the taining and enhancing pheasant pheasant abu abundance. enhancing ndance. RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCREASED INCREASED FOR PHEASANT PRODUCTION PRODUCTION PHEASANT 1. The The most important thing thing a farmer l. most important farmer can do for pheasants areas is to avoid avoid pheasants in wheat-dominated wheat-dominated areas tillage of standing standing wheat stubble in May May and and June June tillage wheat stubble 1). The The most most critical critical period June (Fig. 1). period is 10 May to 20 June most hens hens will be incubating incubating nests nests placed placed in as most stubble fields. One option is to disk wheat stubble in stubble One option wheat stubble 2), if possible, possible, and at the latest. April (Fig. 2), and by 10 May at the latest. early nests nests will be destroyed destroyed in late late April and and Some early early May, May, but laying stages stages and and early but most most will be in the laying hens will move elsewhere elsewhere and and immediately immediately renest. hens renest. Economics dictate dictate that that most most irrigated land will irrigated land 3. Economics be intensively intensively fanned farmed for alfalfa alfalfa or row-crops, e.g., sugar beets, beets, and and beans. beans. Pheasants Pheasants rarely rarely nest nest in corn, sugar row crops, but alfalfa fields act act as attractive attractive death death but alfalfa traps where nests and and a majority majority of traps where practically practically all nests nesting hens are are lost lost when alfalfa is cut. Fall Fall nesting hens when the the alfalfa plowing winter grazing grazing plowing of row-crops or intensive intensive winter usually eliminates their value value for winter usually eliminates their winter use. use. Consequently, dryland dryland wheatfields, land bordering bordering quently, wheatfields, or land irrigated fields, usually usually possess greater potential potential for irrigated possess greater sustaining pheasants and for enacting enacting habitat habitat sustaining pheasants and modifications. modifications. 1 1 Contribution from Project W-37-R. Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Figure 1. 1. Pheasants Pheasants oft.en often begin nesting Figure begin ne ting in wheat wheat. stubble but but almost almost none successful there there because stubble none are are successful because of stubble stubble ttillage. (Photo by W.D. Snyder) Snyder) of illage. (Photo �vigorous growth growth for a greater greater n number years. umber of years. vigorous Alfalfa Alfalfa also also provides provides a better better growt growthh fonn form for nesting nesting than than grass grass alone. 6. Permanent Permanent grass-alfalfa grass-alfalfa stands stands should should be es6, tablished tablished along along roadsides, roadsides, irrigation irrigation ditches, ditches, and and other edge areas. areas. Such Such cover is important important for nesting nesting other and broods broods and and is beneficial beneficial to territorial territorial roosters roosters in in and spring. spring. Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet ;;99 #99 (Snyder (Snyder 1974) should should he be reviewed reviewed concerning concerning seeding seeding perennial perennial herbaceous cover cover in roadsides roadsides and and other other tracts. tracts. herbaceous Figure Figure 22.. Completing Completing stubble stubble tillage tillage in April reduces reduces nest llows hens nest loss loss and and aallows hens to successfully successfully complete complete nests nests in wheat wheat fields fields prior prior to wheat wheat harvest. harvest. (Photo (Photo by W.D. Snyder) Snyder) Tillage Tillage later later in in May May and and early early June, June, when when hens hens are are incubating, forces them them to 1·ecycle recycle for egg laying laying and and incubating, then then renest renest in in wheat wheat fields at at a later later date date only to be abandon their their subsequent subsequent nest nest during during forced to abandon harvest harvest of wheatfields. wheatfields. 7. Narrow Narrow strips strips should should be plowed and and summersummer7. fallowed fallowed in in tightly tightly sodded sodded draws draws andotherunfarmed and otherunfarmed areas adjacent adjacent to cropland. cropland. These These areas areas should should be areas nitial seeded seeded to grass-alfalfa grass-alfalfa mixtures. mixtures. After After the the iinitial strips strips are are revegetated, revegetated, additional additional strips strips can can be established. tablished. Switch grass aand other warm warm season, season, tall, tall, lodge8. Switchgrass nd other resistant resistant grasses grasses are are recommended recommended for seeding seeding in small small patches patches or strips strips in in subin-igated, subirrigated, inigated, irrigated, or sandy sites. sites. Atrazine Atrazine should should be applied applied as as a presandy emergent emergent weed suppressor suppressor 2-3 2-3 weeks prior prior to seeding seeding at 1lIb. (active ingredient) ingredient) or less per per acre acre (0.45 kg/ kg/O.4 at lb. (active 0.4 ha) ha) to facilitate facilitate better better stand stand establishment establishment (Wilson 1973). 1973). 2. 2. A 2nd 2nd option option is to use a minimum-ti1lage minimum-tillage summer summer fallow approach approach with with herbicides herbicides so that that initial initial stubstubfallow ble tillage tillage can can be delayed delayed until until lateJuneor late June or preferably preferably later primary nesting later after after the the primary nesting effort effort has has been been completed. completed. Key essentials essentials include include (1) (1) applying applying a postpostharvest treatment treatment of a moderately moderately persistent harvest persistent preemergent emergent herbicide, herbicide, such such as as atrazine, atrazine, to reduce reduce weed germination germination during during the the subsequent subsequent spring; spring; or (2) using using a contact contact herbicide herbicide such such as glyphosate glyphosate "Roun"Roundup" when when necessary necessary in in spring spring to replace replace the the initial initial tillage operation. operation. CaTe Care must must be taken taken to avoid avoid using using tillage the the highly highly toxic toxic contact contact herbicide, herbicide, paraquat, paraquat, in in spring. Personnel Personnel of the the Colorado Colorado State State University University spring. Extension the U.S. Department Extension Service Service or the Department of Agriculture, Agriculture, Soil Conservation Conservation Service Service should should be contacted for more more details details on procedures and options. options. contacted procedures and 9. Controlled Controlled burning burning of weedy ai-eas areas is not not 9. recommended because fire stimulates recommended because stimulates weed germinagermination resulting resulting in in "dog-hair" "dog-hair" stunted stunted stands stands of antion nuals little value nuals of oflittle value to wildlife. Renovation Renovation burning burning of perennial grasses perennial grasses and and grass-legume grass-legume mixtures mixtures is recommended once every every 5-10 5-10 years. years. Only a small small recommended pm-tion portion of the the perennial perennial nesting nesting cover should should be burned in any year to establish ation so that burned any 11year establish a rot rotation that the the majority of the the site site will be available available for for use every majority year. year. Burns Burns should should be conducted conducted in late late March March or early early April April when when the the soil contains contains moisture moisture to reduce reduce injury injury to the the plants. plants. 3. Use of a sweep sweep tillage tillage plow to undercut undercut stubble stubble in early spring spring should should be avoided avoided as hens are attracted attracted early hens are to nest nest or renest renest in the the partially partially standing standing residual residual and and nearly all nests nests will be destroyed destroyed by the the next next tiJlage tillage nearly operation. Sweep tillage tillage should should be used used in in combinacombinaoperation. tion with with chemical chemical fallow fallow when when initial initial tillage tillage can can be delayed until until after after the the primary primary nesting nesting season. season. delayed Tillage of stubble stubble after after harvest harvest should should be avoided avoided to Tillage prevent late nests prevent destruction destruction of oflate nests and and to retain retain stubble stubble fall-winter feeding and survival survival cover. as fall-winter feed.i.1'g and 1. Roadsides Roadsides containing containing tall tall annual annual weeds weeds or l. alfalfa-grass mixtures are alfalfa-grass mixtures are essential essential to broods broods through through mid- and and late late summer. summer. Unless Unless snowdrift snowdrift or visual reas should visual blockage blockage are are problems, problems, these these aareas should not not Mowing should should be delayed delayed elsewhere elsew here until until be mowed. Mowing eai-ly early September September or later later to reduce reduce stress stress on broods. broods. 4. Destruction Destruction of excess excess wheat wheat acreage acreage under under federal or June federal crop retirement retirement programs programs in late late May Mayor June should be avoided avoided because because of extensive extensive nesting nesting in should wheat wheat at at tbat that time. 5. Mixtures Mixtures dominated dominated by ladak ladak alfalfa alfalfa and and wheatgrass (tall, (tall, intermediate, intermediate, and and crested) crested) should should be wheatgrass used used for seeding seeding nesting nesting tracts tracts as these these species species are are relatively relatively easy easy to establish, establish, moderately moderately priced, priced, and and provide provide a favorable favorable growth growth form for nesting nesting game game birds. birds. Bacteria Bacteria within within alfalfa alfalfa root root nodules nodules fix atmospheric nitrogen nitrogen allowing allowing grasses grasses to sustain sustain more mospheric RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCREASED INCREASED PHEASANT PHEASANT FOR SURVIVAL SURVIVAL 2. Wheat ks, aand nd other Wheat stubble, stubble, corn corn stal stalks, other crop residual should should remain remain standing standing over winter winter to residual provide provide feeding feeding cover. Crop residues residues need need to be closely associated with with winter winter cover which which is often easily easily associated accomplished accomplished by altering altering field boundaries. boundaries. Stubble Stubble should be left left as tall tall as as possible possible when when harvesting should harvesting wheat, wheat, especially especially in sites sites adjacent adjacent to winter winter loafing loafing cover. Stubble Stubble should should be at at least least 12 inches inches (0.30 m) tall. This tall. This will reduce reduce avian avian predation predation and and increase increase survival, survival, especially especially du1ing during blizzards, blizzards. SmalJ Small strips strips or patches patches too wet wet or weedy to cut should should be left left standing standing when when harvesting harvesting crops. Individuals truly truly interested interested in wildlife wildlife should should 3. Individuals manage manage and and use annual annual weeds where where they they do no harm harm because they they are are a no or low cost cost asset asset to wildlife wildlife on because �waste waste areas areas and and field edges. Combinations Combinations of sunflowers, sunflowers, annual annual kochia, kochia, annual annual ragweed, ragweed, and other other tall, tall, lodge-resistant lodge-resistant species species provide provide near near optimum timum pheasant pheasant habitat. habitat. Broods need need the the protection, protection, shade, shade, and and open feeding feeding cover cover these these sites sites supply supply in summer. summer. Weeds provide provide high high value value loafing loafing and and protective protective cover through through fall, winter, winter, and and early early spring. Green Green and and residual residual wild annuals annuals are also exexcellent cellent for nesting. nesting. Narrow Narrow strips strips and and small small patches patches tilled tilled in March March within within and and along along the edge of perennial perennial nesting nesting tracts tracts provide provide fire guards, guards, and and yield tall weeds weeds which which greatly greatly increase increase the the use and and value value of the site site for pheasants, pheasants, mourning mourning doves, and and other other wildlife wildlife dependent dependent on energy-packed energy-packed weed seeds for survival survival (Fig. 3). 3). . dated dated by drifting drifting snow. snow. Shelterbelt Shelterbelt umdergrowth undergrowth should should not not be pruned pruned to to facilitate facilitate cultivation. cultivation. CultivaCultivation tion of trees trees should should be discontinued discontinued as as soon soon as plantings plantings can can survive survive without without mainti~nance. maintenance. Additional the ditional rows of wild plum should should be planted planted on the leeward leeward side side of established established narrow narrow windbreaks. windbreaks. Small Small plum plum thickets thickets planted planted 100 feet (BO (30 m) to the the leeward leeward side side will increase increase winter winter protection protection for pheasants. pheasants. Livestock Livestock should should be fenced out out of woody plantings plantings or other other wintering wintering sites. sites. Field and and fence corners, corners, power power ri1ght-of-ways, right-of-ways, 7. Field and with and similar similar small small odd tracts tracts should should be planted planted with small small clumps clumps of adapted adapted shrubs. shrubs. Short, Short, open open shrub shrub species species (e.g., Hansen Hansen rose and and sand sand cherr,,) cherry) should should not not be used. Wild plum, chokecherry, chokecherry, and and Rocky Rocky Mountain tain juniper juniper provide provide excellent excellent growth growth fo1ms forms for most most plains plains upland upland game. game. Planting Planting guides guides and and species species availability availability information information can be obtained obtained from from the the Colorado Colorado Colorado State State Forest Forest Service Service through through the the Colorado State State University University Extension Extension Service Service or from the the U.S. Department Department of Agriculture, Agriculture, Soil Conservation Conservation Service. Figm·e 3. Figure 3. Narrow Narrow strips strips plowed plowed in in unfal'med unfarmed ti-acts tracts in March provide provide excellent excellent brood brood habitat habitat by summer. summer. (Photo (Photo by W.D. W.D. Snyder) Snyder) 4. 4. Shrubs Shrubs instead instead of trees trees should should be planted planted for winter winter cover, especially especially if if trees trees are not not already already present. present. Trees Trees self-prune self-prune their their lower branches branches and and attract attract avian avian predators predators and and nest-robbing nest-robbing crows and and magpies. magpies. Trees Trees can be topped topped to promote promote basal basal and and lateral brushy brushy growth. growth. Young Young trees, after after leafing leafing out, lateral can be "half-cut·• "half-cut" near near the base base and and pushed pushed over to provide woody cover close to the ground ground where where it is provide needed needed b:v by most most plains plains upland upland game. Figure 4. Patches Patches planted planted to forage forage sorghums sorghums provide provide Figure secure well as secure roosting roosting sites sites during during blizzards blizzards as as well feeding feeding and and harvest harvest sites. sites. (Photo (Photo by W.1). W.D. Snyder) Snyder) 5. Large Large shelterbelts shelterbelts provide provide winter winter protection protection but considerable land that could could better better be planted planted occupy considerable land that to annuals annuals or perennial perennial nesting nesting cover for pheasants. pheasants. Pheasants Pheasants usually usually roost roost in weed patches patches or stubble stubble fields during during severe severe blizzards blizzards and and woody plantings plantings are of primary primary value value after after the blizzard blizzard is over. are Patches Patches of tall tall forage forage sorghum sorghum (Fig. 4), 4), sweet sweet clover, tall annual annual weeds (Fig. 5) will increase increase survival survival or tall during during blizzards blizzards and and winter winter more than than the the use of extensive woody plantings. plantings. Several Several small small thickets thickets of extensive wild plum, plum, chokecherry, chokecherry, or Rocky Mountain Mountain juniper, juniper, distributed distributed over a farm farm adjacent adjacent to tall tall stubble stubble or corn stalks will provide provide adequate adequate shelter shelter and and food in all stalks but but the the worst worst storms. storms. Shrub Shrub thickets thickets positioned positioned leeward leeward of snow snow fences or existing existing natural natural barriers barriers will reduce reduce impacts impacts of drifting drifting snow. wi11 6. Where shelterbelts shelterbelts are are present present or needed to protect or buildings, protect livestock livestock and/ and/or buildings, they they should should be wide enough enough (8-15 (8-15 rows) so that that they they are not not inuninun- Figure 5. Annual Figure Annual weeds weeds adjacent adjacent to vine vine covered covered tall tall shrubs shrubs offer offer secure secure winter winter cover cover for pheasants. pheasants. (Photo (Photo by W.D.Snyder) �RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCREASED HEASANT HARVEST INCREASED P PHEASANT HARVEST Managing Managing pheasants pheasants for for harvest harvest is much much like like managing aa cow-calf managing cow-calf ranching ranching operation. operation. Most Most roosters, roosters, like like most most bull calves, calves, are are surplus surplus and and can can be removed removed each each year. year. Currently, Currently, roosters roosters are are grossly grossly under-harvested under-harvested in in Colorado. Colorado. Large Large unbroken unbroken fields, fields, sparse, sparse, short short cover, cover, relatively relatively low pheasant pheasant densitiE:s, densities, and and the the learning learning ability ability of pheasants pheasants to avoid avoid hunte1·s, hunters, all make make pheasant pheasant hunting hunting a frustration frustration at at times times that that many many hunters hunters too quickly quickly abandon. abandon. There There is no easy easy solution solution to this this problem problem of underharvest, underharvest, but but a few management management tools tools can can be usea used to increase increase recreational recreational opportunities. opportunities. 1. 1. Field Field size can can be reduced reduced and and cover cover strips strips can can be developed developed to provide provide tall., tall, dense dense cover cover that that will hold birds birds until until they they are are flushed flushed by hunters. hunters. Excess Excess irrigation irrigation water water can can be used used to create create tall, tall, dense dense cover cover at at the the end end of fields. 2. Narrow Narrow strips strips can can be disked disked along along field edges edges and and patches patches of tall tall cover cover to reduce reduce escape escape routes. routes. 3. Winter Winter resting resting cover cover can can be distributed distributed to reduce reduce pheasant pheasant concentrations concentrations and_ and provide_n_10re provide more hunting hunting opportunity. opportunity. Such Such cover cover should should be pos1tioned positioned to hold hold pheasants pheasants away away from from livestock livestock and and buildings buildings where where most hunter-landowner conflicts most hunter-landowner conflicts usually usually occur. Shrubs or or low trees trees should should be used used instead instead oftaU of tall 4. Shrubs trees trees to to reduce reduce running running escape escape and and to allow allow hunters hunters to more readily readily see pheasants pheasants as as they they flush. flush. more 5. Cover Cover that that is is attractive attractive to hunters hunters will receive receive increased higher harvest will be attained increased use. A higher harvest will attained on on land land containing containing high high pheasant pheasant densities. densities. SELEC1'ED SELECTED REFERENCES REFERENCES Baxter, . L., and W. Wolfe. 1973. Life Baxter, W W.L., and C. C.W. Life history history and and ecology ecology of the the ring-necked ring-necked pheasant pheasant in in Nebraska. Nebraska. Nebraska Parks Comm. Nebraska Game Game and and Parks Comm. Tech. Tech. Pub!. Pub!' 58pp. Lyon, the influences Lyon, L.J. L.J. 1961. Evaluation Evaluation of of the influences of woody cover cover on on pheasant pheasant hunting hunting success. success. J. Wild!. Manage . Manage. .. 25: 421-428. Madson, Madson, ~ J.r. 1962. The The ring-necked ring-necked pheasant. pheasant. Olin Olin Mathies,on pp, Mathieson Chem. Chern. Corp,, Corp., East East Alton Alton,1 Ill. 104 pp. Snyder, roadsides for pheasant Snyder, W'.D. W.D. 1974. Seeding Seeding roadsides pheasant nesting nesting cover. cover. Colorado Colorado Div. Wild!. Game Game Infor. Infor. Leaf. 99. 99. 3 pp. _ nesting cover __ _ . 1981, 1981. Evaluation Evaluation of of nesting cover preferences preferences of pheasants pheasants in relation relation to wheat wheat farming farming methods. methods. Colorado Aid Proj. W-37W-37Colorado Div, Div. Wildl. Wild!. Prog. Prog. Rep. Fed. Fed. AidProj. R-34. R-34. Work Plan Plan 1, Job Job 11. Pp. 1-28. 1-28. Wilson, Wilson, J, J. 1973. Weed control control on on new new native native grass grass seedlings Wilson Seed Farms, seedlings - a progress progress report. report. Wilson Farms, Polk, Polk, Nebr. Nebr. 2pp. Warren Warren D. Snyder Snyder Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher July 1970 1970 July (revised (revised May May 1982) �Outdoo1,. Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED OLORADO PUBLISHED BY THE THE C COLORADO DEPARTMENT F NATURAL ES DEPARTMENT O OF NATURAL RESOURC RESOURCES DIVISION ISH AAND N D PARKS DIVISION OF OF GAME. GAME, F FISH PARKS Number Number 83 Game lnf ormation Leaflet Information Leaflet AN TURTLE AN EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE TURTLE TRAPa,b,c TRApa,b,c Game and and Fish Fish personnel, personnel, especially especially in the the propagation propagation aspects aspects of game bird management, management, often often have occasion occasion to control control turtles. turtles. In In Colorado, rado, the the common common snapper, snapper, Chelydra ehelydm serpentina, serpentina, is by far the the most most harmful harmful species, species, but but the the alligator alligator snapper, snapper, Macrochelys temminckii, temminckii, and and the urtles, Amyda the soft-shell soft-shell tturtles, Amyda spp., spp., may be troubletroublesome in the larger larger waters waters of the the Mississippi Mississippi River River Valley. The trap trap described described in this this leaflet leaflet appears appears to be equally equally effective effective in capturing capturing all of these these forms. In Colorado, Colorado, and and elsewhere elsewhere throughout throughout its vast vast Mississippi Mississippi River River Valley range, range, the the common common snapper snapper has has been been so destructive destructive on some waterwaterfowl planting planting sites sites that that the the success success of these these undertakings undertakings was seriously seriously jeopardized. jeopardized. Bonny Bonny Reservoir Reservoir near near Wray, and the the South South Platte Platte River River near Masters Masters are recent recent instances. instances. near snapping turtle, turtle, as is well known, known, is The snapping abundant. Scarcely a pond, pond, lake or stream stream in abundant. Scarcely the vast vast Mississippi Mississippi drainage drainage is without without a snapper snapper the population. population. Restricted Restricted to aquatic aquatic habitats, habitats, this predacious predacious and aggressive aggressive turtle turtle is superably superably fitted fitted for submarine submarine approaches approaches to food; and and ducklings, ducklings, goslings goslings and other other water water birds, birds, sitting sitting or swimming, swimming, are literally literally ''sitting "sitting ducks" ducks" to attack. attack. On several several South South Platte Platte sloughs sloughs in Weld County, County, all in the the vicinity vicinity of a Canada Canada goose goose flock-establishment area, area, mallard mallard production production inflock-establishment creased creased from two ducklings ducklings in 1968 1968(which (which later later disappeared) after the disappeared) to 50 50 in 1970 1970after the trapping trapping and and removal removal of 60 60 snapping snapping turtles. turtles. At At this this location, location, snappers snappers up to 30 30 pounds pounds in weight weight attacked attacked mature mature geese, geese, both both on land land and and in the water. water. Surviving victims victims were crippled crippled for life. life. Goose Surviving and both losses losses were nominal nominal in 1970, 1970,and both geese geese and and Division of Game, Game, Fish Fish aa In the release of this leaflet the Division and Parks takes the the position that control of inindividuals of an abundant species, on a local local basis, may be justifiable in in the the interests interests of man. The Division does does not advocate promiscuous promiscuous control of any animal animal species, and this publication should not be construed to the contrary. contrary. designed and built by the author author in in 1968; 1968;perbb Trap designed perfected and 1970. fected in in 1969 1969and 1970. cc Contribution from from Federal Aid Aid Project W-88-R. W-88-R. wild mallards mallards have have done done well on this this area area since. since. have been Parallel Parallel results results have been obtained obtained at at other other Colorado Colorado lo,cations. locations. In the the habits the following, following, the habits and and behavior behavior of snapping snapping turtles, turtles, and and a list list of materials, materials, construction construction details, details, and and directions directions for setting setting and the turtle and operatilng operating the turtle trap trap are are given. given. The snapping snapping turtle turtle is active active almost almost from from ice-out ice-out to ice-in. ice-in. It It is sluggish sluggish and and does not not feed much much until until the the water water warms warms up up in the the spring the fall: May to spring or after after it cools off in the September September in southern southern Minnesota; Minnesota; March to The best trapping :November November in in Louisiana. Louisiana. The best trapping months is is Colorado Colorado are are June-August, June-August, inclusive. inclusive. months both vegetarian Snappers Snappers are are both vegetarian and and carnivorous. carnivorous. In summer, summer, no snapper snapper ever ever passes passes up meat, meat, fresh fresh or stale, stale, and, and, since since meat meat is less less available available than than vegetation, vegetation, it follows that that any any big meat meat Fig. 1. 1. Tra;p Trap designer lifting up one end of the 8-foot8-footFig. long turtle turtle trap to inspect bait and catch. It It was set in about three feet of water and covered with weeds and willow willow boughs to darken the trap interior, interior, making it more attractive to snapping turtles. turtles. The funnel is attached to the square, 1 x 4" structure structure on the is front end end of the trap. (Photo by Lee E. Yeager) �bait bait is a top attraction. attraction. Scents Scents or odlors odors given given Fig. Fig. 2. Front Front construction construction of trap trap showing showing funnel funnel attachattachment. It is stapled ment. stapled firmly firmly to the the inside inside square square of 4's.. (Photo (Photo by Lee E E.. Yeager) Yeager) 1 x 4's Fig. Fig. 3. Looking Looking down down the the "throat" "throat" of of the the trap trap at the the bait bait (4 beef beef lungs) lungs), , bung hung two feet feet beyond beyond the the funnel funnel entrance entrance by a wire from from the the top of the the trap. trap. The The double-T double-T latch latch across across the the throat throat swings swings back back toward toward the rear rear of the the trap trap and and prevents prevents turtles turtles from from esesthe caping by crawling crawling back back through through the the funnel. funnel. (Photo (Photo caping Lee E. Yeager) Yeager) by Lee off, underwater, underwater, by large, large, centrally-loc:ated centrally-located baits baits are detectable detectable by turtles turtles for yards yards to rods rods around, around, and and explains explains why only only one trap trap will pond clean clean out out snappers snappers in a threethree- or four--acre four-acre pond or section section of river river channel channel in only a few days. days. The trap trap needs needs only only to be moved moved to a new site, site, generally generally another another pond, pond, slough, slough, or river river bend, bend, every every five or seven seven days. design, dimensions dimensions and and structural structural The design, features the features of the the trap trap are clearly clearly shown shown in the drawings, drawings, Figure Figure 6. 6. All materials materials required required for page 4. construction construction of the trap trap are listed listed o,n on page Used lumber lumber and and netting, netting, except except as specified, specified, are satisfactory satisfactory for construction construction purposes. purposes. The The best best trap trap location location is in the middle middle of a pond pond or channel, channel, provided provided the the water water lies on on a saucer-like trap saucer-like bottom. bottom. Otherwise, Otherwise, place place the the trap in about about three three feet of water, water, making making certain certain that that the bait bait is submerged. submerged. Good turtle turtle bait bait consists consists of beef lungs, lungs, rejected jected chickens, chickens, jackrabbits, jackrabbits, or carp. All are are good, and and there there are other other waste waste meats meats that that can be used. Lungs used. Lungs hold hold up best best;; fish fish go to pieces after after only only a day or two in summer summer weather. weather. the Bait should should be hung hung from the top of the trap terminal, trap about about two feet feet beyond beyond the the funne11 funnel terminal, wired also to the the bottom bottom of the trap trap in order order and wired under water water away from flies. If to keep it under closer, or unwired, unwired, top and bottom, bottom, la1rge large turtles closer, turtles will pull the the bait bait in to the funnel funnel throat throat and, and, after feeding, feeding, back out out to return return another another day. after Never Never leave the the bait bait free in the trap or laying laying on the trap trap bottom. bottom. Snapping turtles turtles like darkness, darkness, much much like Snapping flathead catfish, catfish, hence hence their their habit habit of bedding bedding flathead under submerged logs, logs, stumps, stumps, oversubmerged down under hanging hanging banks banks or in deep mud. Traps Traps in open open Fig. Large Fig. 4. 4. Large snapping snapping turtles turtles may may be saf,ely safely handled handled by by holding holding them them by the the tail. (Photo (Photo by by Lee Lee E. Yeager) Yeager) �vater weeds or willow vater should should be covered covered with with weeds boughs boughs as shown shown in Figure Figure 1. 1. In In trapping trapping turtles turtles in creeks creeks and and rivers rivers always always face the the trap trap downstream downstream in order order to prevent prevent trash from collecting collecting in the the funnel. funnel. Also, the the trash cturent current will hold hold shut shut the the latch latch in the the throat throat of the the funnel. funnel. Traps Traps in sizable sizable streams streams should should be anchored anchored with with rope or wire tied tied to a stake, stake, tree tree or root, root, and sodden sodden tree tree limbs on top top of the weed weed or willow willow thatching thatching help help hold hold the the the trap trap in place. The The funnel funnel of the the trap, trap, preferably preferably of V-mesh V-mesh fencing fencing wire, wire, should should be about about 30 30 x 30 30 inches inches the base base and and 40 40 inches inches long. long. It should should extend extend at the length into into the the trap. trap. Staple Staple the the funnel funnel full length base base firmly firmly to the the 1 x 4-inch board board frame. frame. The The bottom bottom edge edge of the the funnel funnel exit exit (small (small end) end) should should be about about 24 24 inches, inches, and and the the base base about about 8 inches, inches, above above the the trap trap bottom. bottom. Turtles Turtles up to about about 35 35 pounds pounds require require a funnel funnel throat throat 10 10 x 14 14 inches; large 12 inches; large turtles, turtles, 12 x 18 18 inches inches or thereabouts. Two small thereabouts. small guy-wires guy-wires (stove (stove pipe or bailing bailing wire) wire) tied tied from the rim rim of the the funnel funnel throat throat to the the top of the the frame frame (2 x 4's) 4's) will hold hold it steady, steady, preventing preventing it from dropping dropping down down under under the the turtle's turtle's weight. weight. A 2 x 3-foot wire door door of any any simple simple design design ;n in one side side of the the trap, trap, but but securely securely fastened fastened .vhile Nhile in use, use, permits permits easy easy entrance entrance to bait bait the the trap The trap or remove remove turtles. turtles. The netting netting may be clipped clipped about about three three feet feet horizontally horizontally and and two feet vertically; vertically; and, and, to close, the the loose loose ends ends of the the mesh mesh are wrapped wrapped around around the the first first wire along along the the adjacent adjacent cut cut edge. edge. A 2020- or 30-foot rope rope attached attached to the the front front bottom 2 x 4 will aid in pulling pulling the the trap trap and and bottom catch ashore. ashore. Be extra extra careful careful in handling handling snappers snappers for, once they they seize prey prey or enemy, enemy, their their jaws jaws have have to be pried pried loose, loose, even even after after the the head head is chopped chopped off! A 30-pound 30-pound snapper snapper can cut cut off a finger! finger! So, handle handle them them while while alive, alive, by the tail, tail, keeping keeping the the reptile's reptile's head head and and outstretched outstretched neck neck turned turned away from you! Snapping Snapping turtle turtle meat meat is excellent excellent table table fa.refarefried, soup, soup, stew or chowder. chowder. Tons Tons go to waste waste every every summer summer because because fishermen, fishermen, hunters, hunters, and and others others are not not aware aware of the the snapper's snapper's food value value or do not not know know how to clean clean the the critter critter for table table use. use. Actually, cleaning cleaning a turtle turtle is about about as easy easy as Actually, defeathering defeathering and and eviscerating eviscerating a chicken. chicken. The The first first step step is to chop off the the reptile's reptile's head, head, best best done done by clamping clamping its jaw jaw with long-handled long-handled pliers, pliers, ~iving ~iving a handhold handhold for pulling pulling his his neck neck out out of .he shell. shell. Next, Next, separate separate the top and and bottom bottom halves halves of the the shell shell by cutting cutting through through the the soft soft cartilage cartilage hinge hinge on each each side. Lift off the the top half half by slicing slicing along along the the backbone backbone attached attached to the the inside inside surface surface of the the top shell. shell. The bottom bottom Fig. 5. 5. Three Three 10-pound 10-pound snapping snapping turtles turtles taken taken in turtle turtle trap, small painted trap, along along with with 20-25 20-25small painted turtles, turtles, which which are always returned returned unharmed unharmed lo to the the slough. slough. (Photo always (Photo by Lee E. Yeager) Yeager) shell can likewise likewise be cut and skinned skinned from from the the shell carcass, carcass, exposing exposing the the innards. innards. Gutting, Gutting, washing washing and cutting cutting up are are simple simple details. details. and Throughout Throughout the the Mississippi Mississippi River River Valley, Valley, where snapping snapping turtle turtle is a common common table table dish, dish, where it is usually usually fried fried like like chicken. chicken. Snapper Snapper soup, soup, stew stew and and chowder chowder are less less common. common. Use conventional ventional recipes recipes for all, with with a bit bit more more onion onion and and garlic garlic than than for other other meat-based meat-based soups soups or stews. stews. A proven proven recipe recipe calls for soaking soaking the the freshly freshly cut-up cut-up turtle turtle meat meat in salt salt water water overnight; overnight; drain, drain, remove most most of the the fat and wash; wash; and soak in remove cold water water to remove remove most most of the the salt. salt. Roll meat meat in a mixture mixture of flour flour and and corn corn meal meal (yellow (yellow or white); white); season season with with pepper pepper and and other other condiments if desired; desired; and and brown brown in skillet skillet or condiments Dutch Dutch oven. oven. Cook in Dutch Dutch oven oven for approxiapproximately mately two hours hours over over low heat heat or until until meat meat falls from bone. Serve bone. Serve hot, hot, with with salad salad an~ and vegetables vegetables as for fish. fish. Snappers Snappers turn turn out out about about one-third one-third of their their live weight in usable weight usable meat. meat. A 28-pounder 28-pounder yielded yielded a bit more more than than 10 10 pounds pounds of near near boneboneless steak. steak. Due to the the disproportionate disproportionate weight weight the shell, shell, turtles turtles yield, yield, percentage-wise, percentage-wise, only only of the about about half the the usable usable meat meat obtained obtained from deer, deer, elk, antelope antelope and and other other big game. game. �2" f'OX ,·NETTING CORNER CORNER BRACES, BRACES,II X4" r 4 S10li:S ANO ENDS, 2 X4" X4" SIDES AND FUNNEL: 40" LONG; FUNNEL: 30"X 30"X 30" 30" 1:IASE; BASE; 40· 11 10 10" X t4" 14" ·rHROAT; THROAT; a" 2" V-NET1r1NG V-NETTING -----4' CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION FEATURES FEATURES OF TURTLE TURTLE TRAP TRAP ~· I" 18 8 WIRE WIRE FUNNEL FUNNEL Fig. 6. HAIRPIN HAIRPIN LATCH DIMENSIONS Des-ign WaUmo) De&ign and and construction construction details details for for turtle turtle trap. trap. (Drawings (Drawings by by M. Wallmo) Materials Materials for Turtle Turtle Trap 8' - sides, sides, end end uprights uprights a 2 xx 4" x 8' 4"' xx 8' - funnel funnel base anchorage anchorage 11 xx 4' and and comer comer braces braces a 3 yds. - 2'' 2" V-mesh fencingb, fencingb, 36" wide, for funnel funnel 12 netting, galvanized galvanized (heavy), (heavy), 12 yds. - 2" fox netting, 48" wide, for sides, sides, top, bottom bottom and 48" back end end of trap trap 1 lb. 16p 16p nails, nails, cement cement coated coated for for 22 x 44 11 lb. 10p lOp nails, nails, cement cement coated coated for for 11 x 4 lb. -11 lb. 11" " fox netting netting staples, staples, galvanized galvanized 6 4 ft. 33 ft. -- 1/8" rod or steel steel wire, wire, for hairpin hairpin 1/ 8" rod latch latch a Rough-sawn utility quality Rough-sawn or or utility quality bbUsed Used Gurney I. 1. Crawford Crawford Gurney Principal Principal Game Biologist Biologist March,1971 March, 1971 �Outdoor Facts Outd0or Facts : PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF OF GAME. GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS DIVISION fli ,:.J. I I r' ' \ " Number 84 84 Number Information Leaflet LeaUet Game Information EVALUATION OF OF THE THE PICEANCE PICEANCE CREEK CREEK MEADOW DEER COUNT COUNTaa EVALUATION MEADOW DEER Each spring 1947, personnel Each spring since 1947, personnel of the the Colorado Division Fish and Parks Parks Colorado Division of Game, Fish have systematically systematically counted counted mule deer on the the have mule deer meadows and bottomlands bottomlands of the Piceance Creek meadows the Piceance drainage southwest southwest of Meeker, Blanco County County Meeker, Rio Blanco drainage (Fig. 1). The The counts made on the counts were made the assumpassump(Fig. tion that they would would be indicative indicative of trends trends that they tion deer numbers highly important important in deer numbers on the highly Piceance Creek winter winter range. range. The purpose purpose of Piceance this leaflet leaflet is evaluation evaluation of the relationship the reiationship this between annual annual counts counts and and apparent apparent deer deer densidensibetween ties, or the validity validity of the the assumption. assumption. ties, seen on the meadows meadows and and adjacent adjacent and all deer deer seen hillsides were tallied. tallied. Counts hillsides Counts were were made made on consecutive evenings evenings beginning beginning about about onetwo consecutive half to one hour hour before before dark. The The highest highest of half the used. Counting Counting dates dates varied varied the two totals totals was used. 29, most occurring near near most occurring from April 3 to April 29, mid-month. later years years preliminary counts mid-month. In later preliminary counts help in estimating estimating the the time were conducted conducted to help when the peak number number of deer deer might might be when the peak observed. observed. MEADOW COUNT COUNT PROCEDURES PROCEDURES MEADOW When initiated, the the meadow meadow count count consisted consisted When initiated, 16 routes routes totaling totaling about about 135 135 miles miles (Fig. 2). of 16 Two men, men, a driver-counter driver-counter and counter, were and a counter, assigned to each each route. route. Binoculars Binoculars were were used used assigned Meadow 1947-70 Meadow count rroutes, outes, 194770 ---- - Meadow Meadow coun countt rou routes, 61 tes, 19471947-61 F1a9 Creek •••••• •••• Flag Creek track track count route --Game Mcnagomenl Management Unit Unit 22 boundary - -Game 1!!t'""'15Oi!!!!IOl!!!"'iiI'!!!!!!'I 1""!,..,~11.1!!!-.iil!!!!!!!I 10 5 1 0 miles o0 Fig. 2. Approximate locations of Piceance Piceance Creek Creek meadow Fig. Approximate locations meadow deer routes and the Flag Flag Creek Creek track track count count deer count count routes and the route, Rio Blanco Blanco County County, , Colorado. (Drawing by route, Colorado. (Drawing Richard Bartmann) Richard M. Bartmann) Fig. 1. 1. Prior Prior to migration migration to summer summer range, mule deer deer Fig. range, mule congregate each each spring spring on on meadows meadows along along Piceance congregate Piceance Creek tributaries. . (Photo (Photo by Domenick) Creek and and its its tributaries by Don Domenick) a Contribution Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R W-38-R Contribution from Federal 1960, only only 8 (about (about 60 60 miles) miles) of the the Since 1960, 16 original routes have counted, thus 16 original routes have been been counted, thus reducing manpower manpower requirements. requirements. Results were were ducing Results projected with previous previous totals. totals. projected for comparison comparison with In the following, data data for only only the the eight routes the following, eight routes currently recorded are used possible currently recorded used to avoid avoid possible error in such such projections. projections. error �relationship between meadow he relationship between meadow counts counts and and tthe first The first deer harvest harvest the the following following season. season. The second the total total dee!' second expllores explores llle the effect of the deer harvest the following harvest on the the meadow meadow count count the following spring. spring. Meadow Meadow count count and and deer-harvest deer-harvest data data are are graphically portrayed (Fig. graphically portrayed (Fig. 3). The The long-term long-term trend trend in the the deer deer population, population, as depicted depicted by the the meadow may seem because meadow count, count, may seem reasonable reasonable because the estimatied estimated kill increased increased inegula.rly irregularly from from the the late 1940's 1940's to the the mid-1960's, while while the the meadow meadow cou:nt count showed showed an irregular irregular decline. decline. This This hypothesis hypothesis i.s is examined examined in the the following. following. DEER DEER POPULATION POPULATION DENSl'fIES DENSITIES There There is little little information information concerning concerning deer deer population population densities densities on on the the Piceance Piceance Creek winter winter range. During range. During the the late late 1940's 1940's and early early 1950's, 1950's, a period period of presumably presumably high high deer deer numbers, numbers, track track counts counts were obtained obtained during during the the spring spring along along dirt dirt roads roads bisecting bisecting migration migration routes routes between between winter winter and and summer summer range range (Fig. 2). A high high of 24,636 24,636 sets sets of tracks tracks were were counted counted in May, May, 1951, 1951, along along a 15-mile 15-mile segment segment of the the approximate approximate 45-mile-wide route Campbell 1951) route ((Campbell 1951).. Track Track counts counts were discontinued discontinued after after 1953. 1953. Annual Annual harvest harvest data data estimated estimated from hunter hunter report report cards are the the only available available information information possibly possibly indicative indicative of the the trend trend in deer numbers. numbers. Combined Combined harvest harvest data from game game management management units 22, units 22, 23 23 and and 24 24 are used used in the the following following evaluation. evaluation. These These three three units units probably probably contain contain most most of the the deer deer wintering wintering in the the Piceance Piceance area area during during the hunting hunting seasons. seasons. Meadow Co1J1nt-First Deer Harvest Count-First Deer Harvest Two factors exert a major factors exert major influence influence on the the relationship relationship between between the the meadow meadow count count and and the the fi.rst first deer harvest harvest the the following following season. season. One is varying productivity. Fawn:doe varying annual annual deer deer productivity. Fawn:doe ratios harvests in game ratios of estimated estimated harvests game managemanagement ment units units 22, 22, 23 23 and and 24 24 are used used to assess assess the because the variation variation in annual annual productivity productivity because no other other data data were were available available for other other preferred preferred production indices. indices. Chi-square Chi-square analyses analyses of hunter production hunter report-card through 1969 show that that report-card data data for for 1948 1948 through 1969show RESULTS RESULTS AND AND DISCUSSION DISCUSSION approaches are used used in evaluation evaluation of Two approaches the the meadow-count meadow-count data. data. The The first first considers considers the the 17 17 Meadow count count - - - Meadow 16 16 ----First_deer harvest - - - - First-deer harvest 15 15 o-0----0 ---0 Total deer deer harvest harvest j? 13 11 II \0 10 99 ,:, "C -- 88 0o 7 //) 66 ,:, I, I1\ 0 //) ::, \ 55 0 ..c. I- I I I /, \ I I" II I \'\ ~,I I II \, \\', If \I /, \I //\\ C It II 6._ VI, 4 0 I\ ~ I, I\ III, , , I \I I /, \I / I\, I II I I, I\ II II II I\ II \\ 12 12 ...•.. ,I /,I ' I'1 P ,I 1, /III 14 14 Q) CI> G) CI> 'i9 /~ 1, I/ I I/ I I eJ r$I II\ II I \ I' II \\ "/ \ I\ I\I I II \\ \I II \\ I/ \, II I\ I I\ /I II, I I\ /I",... 1\ 1I,'",~ ~ ~ II 1I ''..... , 1 /I 1 , '," ,, " /I III / ,,'1 11 ,, I, " :I,I 1/ ft \I\1..0.-0 ~&-- \ I\ I '\1/\, '1/1 \''' ',\ ,I' \\II \\11 h , \ / / \\ \w ,w ;i ~ t?"', R R \ \_' \\ \ \.." ,,' /\ , '\ , , I \, 1, ~ \ " , I /, \ ' \\ \\ I/ // ' , '-I..\'a>\!) \\\\ II 1/ \\ \~.,...iK g ..Il 33 22 1947 1947 48 50 50 52 54 54 56 56 58 58 60 60 62 62 64 64 66 68 68 1970 1970 Ye ar Year Fig. and the Fig. 3. Summary Summary of of Piceance Piceance Creek Creek meadow meadow deer deer counts, counts, 1947-1970, 1947-1970,and the first first and and total total deer deer harvest harvest in in game game management through 1956. management U11its units 22, 22, 23 23 and and 24, 24, 1948-1969. 1948-1969. First-deer First-deer harvest harvest figures figures are are not not available available for for 1953 1953 through 1956. (Drawing by Richard Richard M. M. Hartmann) Bartmann) (Drawing �fawn:doe fawn:doe ratios ratios differed differed significantly significantly (p < < 0.01) 0.01) The between between years. years. The actual actual effect of varying varying productivity, productivity, as indicated indicated by chi-square chi-square analyses, analyses, is unknown unknown in terms terms of influence influence on hunter hunter harvest. harvest. Limited Limited comparisons comparisons of check station station and and report-card report-card data data in Colorado have have indicated indicated a bias bias in in reporting reporting of fawn fawn kills, cards usually usually showing showing lower lower fawu fawn proportions proportions (Rogers (Rogers 1965, 1965, Anderson Game and Fish Anderson 1966, 1966,Game Fish Planning Planning Services Services 1969 1969 and and Game Planning Planning Services Services 1970). 1970). Thus, Thus, the assessment assessment of productivity productivity on the basis of report report cards alone alone is hazardous, hazardous, particularly particularly in the the light light of hunter hunter bias and low hunter hunter reportreport34 card return return percentages-about percentages-about 34 percent, percent, statestatewide average, average, during during the the past past 20 20 years. years. The second second major major factor factor affecting affecting the the meadow meadow count-first count-first deer kill relationship relationship is the the influence influence of hunting hunting regulations regulations on first-deer first-deer kill or harvest. harvest. This is evident evident (Fig. 4) where where multiple multiple deer bag bag limits limits in one or more more of the the three three game managemanagement ment units units are associated associated with higher higher first-deer first-deer harvests. harvests. mortality must be asmortality between between the the two events events must signed. signed. ]Regrettably, Regrettably, quantitative quantitative data data are ununavailable the available concerning concerning winter winter loss, loss, probably probably the most most important important single single consideration. consideration. However, However, past winters when past reco:rds records reveal reveal five winters when above above "normal" have, or "normal" losses losses could could have, or did, occur occur in in the the Piceance Piceance area. area. These These are are depicted depicted by circles in these in Figure Figure 5. The scattered scattered distribution distribution of these points points suggests suggests no constancy constancy in the the effect effect of probably the meadow probably winter winter loss on on the meadow count. count. A A linear linear re,gression regression analysis analysis substantiates substantiates the the poor poor appearance appearance of the the total total deer deer harvest-meadow harvest-meadow count Total count rel;ationship relationship indicated. indicated. Total estimated estimated were not nol deer harv•ests harvests and and meadow meadow counts counts were significantly Thus, significantly (p > > 0.05) 0.05) related. related. Thus, meadow meadow counts counts cannot cannot be predicted predicted from total total deer deer harvests. harvests. 88 - ''"" ~ co :5 0 u ..... 6 "0 5 0 0 9 ...--.. :r ... .... ,,.,a ~ > .. 0,, 0 0 0 N N ~= II Y ~= 4616 4616 - Q.007 0.007 X Y 0 8 0o 7 6 5 .., •••• 0 10 10 0o 0o c c U> 4 0 II 00 ~ 2 3 4 55 00 00 66 77 8 99 10 11 II 10 13 1 14 16 17 17 112 2 13 4 115 5 16 Total Total Deer Deer Harvaat Harvest of deer) deer) ((thousands ihousonds of .•.• o ., 4 -; _g_ 3 .. ... .. . 3 ~ ;: '" 2 SE = 714 714 SE• Correlation Correlation Coot. Coef. x= -0.021 -0.021 .. d: ::. 2 12345678 1 2345678 Meadow Meadow U> "0 N 22 N >= 22 • ~= 4580~ 45B0- 0.114 Y 0.114 X SE= 1601 SE = 1601 Correla ti on Coef. Correlation Coef. •= - 0.281 0.281 0 0 0 0 77 Count Count Fig. 5. 5. Relationship Relationship of the total deer deer harvest harvest in in game game Fig. the total management units 22, the Piceance management units 22, 23 23 and and 24 and and the Piceance Creek Creek meadow meadow deer deer count count the the following following spring. spring. Circles potentially above Circles indicate indicate years years of above above or or potentially above "normal" winter loss. loss. The correlation correlation coefficient coefficient "normal!" winter The is not 0.05). (Drawing not significant significant (p> (p>O.05). (Drawing by Richard Richard Bartmann) M. Bartmann} (thousands of of deer) deer) (thousands Fig. 4. 4. Relationship Relationship of Piceance Piceance Creek Creek meadow meadow deer deer count and and the the first-deer first-deer harvest harvest the the following following season season count in in game game management management units units 22, 22, 23 23 and and 2'1. 24. Circles Circles indicate years years of mulUple multiple-deer bag limits limits in in one one or indicate deer bag more more units units not not included included in the the regression regression analysis. analysis. The The correlation correlation coefficient coefficient is not not significant significant (p>0.05). (p>O.05). (Drawing (Drawing by Richard Richard M. M. Bartmann) Bartmann) 0 The two factors factors thus thus identified identified render render improbable probable a valid valid quantitative quantitative ,analysis ,analysis of the meadow meadow count-first count-first deer deer harvest harvest relationship. relationship. The influence influence of varying varying annual annual productivity productivity cannot be removed removed from the the analyses, analyses, but but years years cannot when when liberal liberal seasons seasons were in effect in one or more more units units can be be removed. removed. A linear linear regression regression analysis of the the remaining remaining 11 11 years years of data reanalysis linearrelationship, vealed vealed no significant significant (p>0.05) (p > 0.05)linear relationship, wherein the the meadow meadow count count amounted amounted to less less wherein than than one percent percent of the total total variation variation in in the the first deer harvest harvest (Fig. 4). This This indicated indicated that that the the estimated estimated first first deer kill cannot cannot be predicted predicted from the the meadow meadow counts. counts. Total Deer Harvest-Meadow Harvest-Meadow Count Count Total In analyzing analyzing the the effect of all deer harvest harvest on the the meadow meadow count count the the following following spring, spring, Presumably, Presumably, if the the meadow meadow count count reflected reflected changes th e larger changes in deer deer densities, densities, the larger harvests harvests should For should h:ave have the the most most noticeable noticeable effect. For the four when 14,000 were four years years when 14,000 or more more deer deer were estimated to have been harvested harvested in units 22, estimated have been units 22, 23 23 and 24l, 24, tbere there was subsequently subsequently a decrease decrease in the year, an increase the :rneadow meadow count count one one year, increase these years, years, and and essentially essentially no change change for two of these for one year. these comparisons year. However, However, these comparisons are valid only only at or close close to the same initial initial deer deer val.id the same population there is no informapopulation levels, levels, for which which there information. tion. Significantly, Significantly, the the increased increased count count in 1961 1961 followed the the lowest lowest meadow meadow count count up to the the time, time, andl and the the increased increased count count the the following following year was preceded preceded by the the highest highest estimated estimated year total winter. total deer deer kill and and a severe severe winter. CONCLUSIONS AND AND RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSIONS The The meadow-count meadow-count data data are are difficult difficult to evaluevaluate due to lack of accurate population and accurate deer deer population and environment data, data, but but the the hypothesis hypothesis inferred inferred environment from harvest, decreasing from Figme Figure 3 (increasing (increasing harvest, decreasing meadow c ount) does not meadow ,count) not appear appear valid. valid. This viewpoint is based deer based primarily primarily on the the total total deer viewpoint harvest-meadow count If the the harvest-meadow count relationship. relationship. �meadow meadow count count is not not sensitive sensitive to the the larger larger that estimated estimated annual annual reduction reduction in deer deer numbers numbers that occurred, occurred, it probably probably is not not indicative indicative of annual annual deer deer population population trends trends in the the Piceance Piceance area. area. On this this basis, basis, it it is recommended recommended that that the the meadow meadow count, count, as presently presently conducted, conducted, be discontinued. An alternative continued. alternative would would be to revise revise the the current current sample sample design design to reduce reduce errors errors and and allow assigning assigning of confidence confidence limits to results results for more more valid valid year-to-year year-to-year comparisons. comparisons. Some (1) suggestions suggestions to this this end end are: (1) randomize randomize selection selection of sample sample areas; areas; (2) (2) delineate delineate sample sample area area boundaries boundaries precisely; precisely; (3) use use a minimum minimum of qualified 4) standardize qualified observers; observers; ((4) standardize starting starting times, times, starting starting points. point~ minimal minimal weather weather conditions, tions, etc.; and (5) repeat repeat counts counts at intervals intervals during during the the one- or two-week period period when when maximal maximal numbers numbers of deer deer are likely to be on the the meadows, meadows, thus thus allowing allowing for variations variations in weather weather and other other phenomena phenomena affecting affecting occurrence. occurrence. However, these these measures measures would would not not alleviate alleviate interinterpretation pretation problems. problems. Meadow count count results results still need need to be compared pared to reasonably reasonably precise precise population population data data in order order to establish establish the the kind kind and degree degree of relarelationship A tionship that that probably probably does exist. exist. A major consideration consideration in this this respect respect is that that a large large but unknown unknown proportion proportion of deer deer frequent frequent areas not not in close proximity proximity to meadow meadow lands lands and, therefore, have therefore, have no chance chance of being being included included in the the sample sample counts. counts. The The assumption assumption that that this population population segment segment forms a constant constant proportion proportion relative the meadow relative to the meadow deer would would be difficult, difficult, if not not impossible, impossible, to verify. verify. Thus, Thus, given given the the same total total population population over over a period period of time, time, same ingress ingress or egress egress between between the the two habitats habitats would would result in a false ""population trend" based based on result population trend" meadow counts. counts. meadow In In light light of this problem, problem, a second second alternative alternative and and possibly possibly a more feasible feasible approach, approach, would be to develop develop a sound sound sampling sampling system system for the the entire entire Piceance Piceance winter winter range. range. Enumeration Enumeration would would be most the deer most fruitful fruitful during during winter winter when when the deer are confined they are confined to winter winter range range where where they are more An estimate winter more easily easily observed. observed. estimate of winter mortality, mortality, made made in in late late spring, spring, would would also be needed needed since since most most of the the loss probably probably occurs occurs after after winter winter counts. counts. Pellet-group Pellet-group counts counts made made in in late late spring, spring, though though less desirable desirable in in some some respects, respects, might might also be considered. considered. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation Appreciation is extended extended to Allen Allen E. AnderAnderson son for for proposing proposing this this evaluation evaluation and and for critical critical review review of the the manuscript, manuscript, and and to to Dr. David C. Bowden Bowden for statistical statistical assistance. assistance. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Anderson, Anderson, A. E E.. 1966. 1966. Harvest Harvest analysis. analysis. p. 291291315. 315. In In Game Res. Rept. Rept.,, Colo. Dept. Game, Fish Jan. Fish and and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. Jan. (Part (Part 2): 191-372. 191-372. Campbell, Campbell, R. L. 1961. 1951. Migration Migration between between sumsummer mer and winter winter ranges. ranges. p. 71-731. 71-73. In In Quar. Progress Progress Rept. Rept.,, Colo. Dept. Gam.e Game and and Fish, Fish, Denver. Denver. 3: 3: 1-102. 1-102. Game and and Fish Fish Planning Planning Services. Services. 1969. 1969. 1968 1968 Colorado o. Div. Game, Colorado big big game harvest. harvest. Col Colo. Fish Fish and and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. (n.p.) (n.p.) Game Planning Planning Services. Services. 1970. 1970. 1~59 1969 Colorado Colorado Colo, big game harvest. harvest. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Fish and p. and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. 160 160p. a1tios of deer Rogers, Rogers, G. E E.. 1965. 1965. Sex and age rratios deer harvested harvested under under a hunters-choic· hunters-choice,e , multiplemultiplelicense hunting hunting season. season. Colo. Dept. Game, license Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. Outdoor Outdoor Facts Facts No. 34. 2 p. 34. Richard Richard M. M. Bartmann Bartmann Assistant Wildlife· Wildlife Researcher Assistant Researcher July, July, 1971 1971 �Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED RADO PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLO COLORADO DEPARTMENT F NATURAL DEPARTMENT O OF NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION F GAME, N D PARKS DIVISION O OF GAME, FISH FISH AAND PARKS (i , : Jl1 :J , " ' Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number Number 85 85 USE OF AMMONIUM AMMONIUM NITRATE-FUEL NITRATE-FUEL OIL MIXTURES MIXTURES IN BLASTING POTHOLES FOllt WILDLIFE a FOR WILDLIFE Ammonium Ammonium nitrate-fuel nitrate-fuel oil mixtures mixtures (ANFO) have have been been employed employed as blasting blasting agents agents in mining, mining, quarrying quarrying and and heavy heavy construction construction since about about 1958. 1958. Their Their introduction introduction to the wildlife field has been been more recent. recent. Biologists Biologists of the Michigan Conservation Conservation Department Department and the the U. S. Forest Forest Service, beginning beginning in 1963, 1963, were among among the the first to apply this blasting blasting agent agent to wildlife habitat habitat improvement improvement (Mathiak (Mathiak 1965). 1965). Since then, then, the technique technique of pothole pothole blasting blasting with ammoniammonium nitrate nitrate has attracted attracted considerable considerable interest interest on the the part part of many many conservation conservation agencies agencies and private private individuals individuals (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. 1. Pothole Pothole blasting blasting with with ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate has has increased in popularity popularity in in recent recent years years as a technique technique increased for improving (Photo improving wildlife wildlife habitat. habitat. (Photo by Richard Richard Ilopper) Hopper) aa Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-88-R. W-88-R. Contribution Potho,le blasting can be utilized Pothole blasting utilized as a means means of increa:sing waterfowl use increasing waterfowl use on marsh marsh areas areas unattractive unattractive because because open open water water is scarce or absent. Cattails bulrushes are often absent. Cattails and and bulrushes often so dense in some have some marsh marsh areas areas that that waterfowl waterfowl have difficulty places to alight. difficulty in finding finding places alight. Marshes Marshes of this nature, nature, normally normally avoided avoided by ducks ducks and and geese, habitat; geese, must must be regarded regarded as low-quality low-quality habitat; and, unfortunately, type exists unfortunately, this this type exists throughout throughout the country, private lands. country, on both both public public and and private lands. However, However, excavation excavation of potholes potholes in dense dense marsh marsh vegetation with ANFO enables vegetation with enables the the manager manager to convert waterfowl convert many many wetlands wetlands into into attractive attractive waterfowl nesting nesting and and feeding feeding grounds grounds (Fig. (Fig. 2). Fig. produce openings Fig. 2. Pollhole Pothole blasting blasting can produce openings in dense dense stands stands of vegetation, vegetation, thus thus enhancing enhancing the the attractiveattractiveness o.f of such such marshes marshes to waterfowl. waterfowl. (Photo by ness (Photo Richard Hopper) Hopper) Richard �Pothole Pothole blasting blasting is of particular particular value value in improving improving habitats habitats for ducks on areas areas where where other other types types of development development are not not practical practical or are too expensive. Boggy conditions expensive. conditions in most most marshes marshes may prohibit prohibit the the use use of heavy heavy equipequipment. Also, ment. Also, the cost of blasting blasting is usually usually only only a fraction fraction of that that incurred incurred when when draglines draglines or other other large large earth earth movers movers are are used. used. SELECTION SELECTION OF MARSHES FOR FOR BLASTING Marshes Marshes vary vary in their their suitability suitability for blasting, blasting, depending depending on certain certain soil soil and and water water characterischaracteristics. Best Best results results are obtained obtained in marshes marshes composed posed of the the heavier heavier mineral mineral soils soils (clays (clays and loams) loams) and and having having stable stable water water levels levels at the the soil surface surface or no more more than than 66 to 88 inches inches below. Potholes Potholes blasted blasted in sandy sandy and and peat peat soils are normally normally shallower, shallower, thereby thereby reducing reducing their their life expectancy. Marshes expectancy. Marshes characterized characterized by sandy sandy soil lying lying beneath beneath a foot foot or more more of heavy heavy surface surface soil, such such as usually usually occurs occurs on flood plains plains and and in stream stream bottoms, bottoms, are acceptable acceptable sites sites for blasting. blasting. Blasting Blasting in in areas areas where where water water i_ iss more more than than inches below below the the soil surf surface results in 6 to 88 inches ace results low-water-Ievel potholes. potholes. This This condition condition tends low-water-level tends to decrease decrease the the attractiveness attractiveness of excavations excavations to waterfowl, waterfowl, and encourages encourages the the encroachment encroachment of undesirable undesirable vegetation vegetation on the the exposed exposed banks. banks. Fluctuating, Fluctuating, as opposed opposed to stable, stable, water water levels levels in marshes marshes create create an identical identical situation. situation. Water Water levels levels more more than than two inches inches above above the the soil surface surface make make the the blasting blasting operation operation difficult difficult and and often often unsuccessful, unsuccessful, and and such such marshes marshes should should be eliminated eliminated from from blasting blasting considerations. considerations. Usually, thorough thorough search search of a given given marsh marsh will Usually, reveal at least least some some portion portion suitable suitable for for pothole pothole reveal blasting. blasting. MATERIALS AND METHODS METHODS Ammonium Nitrate Nitrate Ammonium Dry ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate (about (about 33.5% 33.5% nitronitrogen), gen), in prill or bead bead form form,1 is recommended recommended for blasting potholes. potholes. This This is thefertilizercommonly the fertilizer commonly blasting used on agricultural agricultural lands. lands. A A few brands, brands, such such used as DuPont DuPont and and Spencer Spencer,1 are are made specifically specifically for blasting; blasting; other other brands, brands, obtainable obtainable directly directly from fertilizer fertilizer dealers, dealers, may mayoror may may not not be suitable for blasting. blasting. Some brands brands will not not absorb absorb and thus thus fail to explode explode satisfactorily. satisfactorily. fuel oil and A list of acceptable acceptable brands brands in not not provided provided here because because distributors distributors of ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate here sometimes sometimes change change their their source source of supply, supply, making making brand names names more more or less less meaningless. meaningless. brand Before Before selecting selecting a given given brand brand or source source of ammonium ammonium nitrate, nitrate, the the prospective prospective user user should should purchase Place purchase and and test test a 25-lb 25-lb.. sample. sample. Place the the sample in a large large plastic plastic bag, mix thoroughly thoroughly sample with with the the proper proper amount amount of fuel oil, and let stand Acceptable stand for 30 30 minutes. minutes. Acceptable brands brands are indicated if no no unabsorbed unabsorbed fuel oil remains remains in in indicated the the bottom bottom of the the bag. Then, Then, as a f:inal final check, check, blast blast a pothole pothole with with the the charge. charge. A 25-lb. charge charge should should excavate excavate a hole 14 14 to 18 18 feet in diameter. diameter. Fuel Fuel Oil No. No. 22 fuel or diesel oils are recommended recommended for mixing mixing with ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate to bond bond the the blasting No. 2 fuel oil is usually blasting agent. agent. usually the the more more economical economical and and thus thus preferred. preferred. Dynamite Dynamite Dynamite Dynamite is used used to provide provide the needed needed heat heat and and shock shock to explode explode the ANFO, i,nduced induced by rapid rapid uniting uniting of fuel oil and oxygen oxygen in the the ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate (Mathiak (Mathiak 1965). 1965). Only 5050- or 60-percent 60-percent Red Cross Extra Extra or 50-percent 50-percent ditching ditching blasting. dynamite dynamite should should be used used in ANFO blasting. Less powerful powerful dynamites dynamites may may produce produce misfires misfires and are are generally generally unacceptable unacceptable for marsh marsh excaexcavating. One-half One-half to two sticks sticks of dynamite dynamite per per vating. charge have been recommended, recommended, but but one one stick stick charge have been suggested for each each 50-lb. 50-lb. (or less) less) charge is suggested charge of Each bag bag or charge charge hole hole containing containing ANFO. Each over 50 50 lbs. of ANFO should should receive receive two sticks sticks over dynamite to insure insure detonation. detonation. of dynamite Fuses Fuses and and Caps The The safety safety fuse and and cap method method is preferred preferred good, over the electric-cap electric-cap method. method. The The latter latter is good, but perhaps perhaps more more hazardous hazardous than than fuses fuses and but and e quipment. caps and and requires requires more more expensive expensive ,equipment. The necessary necessary equipment, equipment, in addition addition to electric electric caps, includes includes a blasting blasting machine, machine, about about 1,000 1,000 feet feet of wire, and and a blasting blasting galvanometer. galvanometer. The The and cap method method requires requires only only s:afety safety fuse, fuse, fuse and standard caps and and a cap crimper, crimper, alU all comparacomparastandard tively tively inexpensive. inexpensive. Fuse Fuse lighters lighters are r1ecommendrecommended, but but are not not necessary. necessary. Detonating Detonating Cord Detonating referred Detonating cord, cord, more more commonly commonly referred used for to by its trade trade name, name, Primacord, Primacord, is is used for connecting the the dynamite dynamite in each each charge charge for connecting making multiple multiple shots. shots. Primacord is simply simply making Primacordl a strong, strong, flexible flexible cord with with an expllosive explosive core. Its use requires requires no more more than than two caips caps and and one one Its detonating all charges charges of a multiple multiple fuse for detonating shot. shot. E-Cord is the the specific type type recommended recommended because because it is is less expensive expensive than than the the others, others, but any any type serve so long long as the the explosive explosive but type will serve encased by a plastic plastic jacket jacket to resist resist side core is encased penetration of oil and and water. water. penetration Preparation Preparation of Charge Charge Holes Holes Charge Charge holes holes should should be dug 1to to a depth depth of about about 4 feet, but but excellent excellent results results have have been been obtained obtained on some some sites sites with with holes holes as shallow shallow as 2.5 2.5 feet. A major major concern concern is that that the the top of the charge charge be at least least one foot below below the the the soil surface. T)le The diameter diameter of the the hole should should be surface. merely large large enough enough to accommodate accommodate the bag mevely the bag ofANFO. ofANFO. �A manual well for manual post-hole post-hole digger digger works works well making making charge charge holes, holes, but but a shovel shovel or portable portable power power auger auger may may also be used. used. Soil excavated excavated from the the charge charge holes holes should should be piled nearby nearby for later later use in in packing packing the the charges. charges. Mixing and and Priming Priming Charges Charges Charges Charges must must be put put in plastic plastic bags bags to keep keep the the the ANFO mixture mixture "dry'' "dry" when when placed placed in the charge charge holes; holes; thus, thus, actual actual mixing mixing of the the ammoammonium nium nitrate nitrate and and fuel oil can can be done done in the the bags. Heavy-gauge recommendHeavy-gauge plastic plastic bags bags are are recommended; the right ed; 14 14 x 35-inch bags bags are the right size for 25-lb. 25-lb. charges charges and and 20 20 x 36-inch for 50-lb. 50-lb. charges. charges. Mixing can take take place al at the the blasting blasting site by adding adding 11 to 1.25 1.25 quarts quarts of fuel oil per 25 25 pounds of ammonium ammonium nitrate. nitrate. Thoroughmixing, Thoroughmixing, pounds a necessity, necessity, can be accomplished accomplished by shaking shaking the the contents contents of the the bags bags or pouring pouring them them from bag to bag, bag, and and the the mixture mixture should should then then soak soak at at least workers least 30 30 minutes minutes prior prior to blasting. blasting. Some workers have have had good success success with with 20-minute 20-minute soaking, soaking, while others others suggest suggest at least least 24 24 hours. hours. while Priming Priming is accomplished accomplished by carefully carefully attachattaching ing one end end of a 5555- to 60-inch length length of safety safety fuse to a blasting blasting cap with with a cap crimper, crimper, making making certain between the certain that that contact contact is made between the fuse fuse end end and and the the charge charge in the the cap. A sharpened sharpened twig or non-sparking non-sparking instrument instrument the the size of a wood wood pencil pencil is then then used used to punch punch a bole hole 11 to 2 inches inches deep in the the unwrapped unwrapped bottom bottom of a stick of dynamite. dynamite. The capped capped end end of the the fuse stick is inserted the hole inserted in the hole and and the the unwrapped unwrapped paper paper refolded refolded to hold hold it in place. The The fuse fuse is then then positioned positioned alongside, alongside, and and attached attached to the the dynadynamite with with several several wraps of masking masking or elecmite trician's trician's tape. tape. Primacord Primacord is connected connected to the the dynamite in the the same same manner manner as the the fuse and and dynamite cap. The stick of dynamite, dynamite, with with fuse and and cap The or Primacord Primacord attached, attached, should should be completely completely buried The bag is then then buried in a bag of ANFO. The tied with strong tied tightly tightly with strong cord or twine twine with with the the opposite opposite end end of the the fuse or Primacord Primacord extending extending out out the the top of the the bag. Excess Excess air should should be removed removed from the the bag bag before before sealing. sealing. This is best best done done by tying tying the the bag as close to the the top charge as possible. possible. of the charge Placement and and Detonation Detonation of Charges Charges Placement The prepared prepared charge charge is now ready ready for placement. Most of the the water water in the the charge charge hole ment. must prevent the must be removed removed to prevent the ANFO-filled floating and to insure insure a solid mud mud bag from floating pack around around and above above the the charge. charge. A one-gallon one-gallon can or bucket bucket works works well in removing removing the the excess excess water water quickly. quickly. Mud should should be mounded mounded around around the top of the the charge charge hole hole to prevent prevent rapid rapid the re-entrance re-entrance of water water on sites sites where where the the water water level is above above the ground surface surface (Fig. 3). level the ground Fig. Fig. 3. Prepared Prepared charges charges are are ready ready for placement placement followfollowing ing removal removal of of excess excess water water from the the charge charge holes. holes. Note or the Note the the mud mud levee levee arowid around the the lip of the charge charge hole, into hole, preventing preventing the the flow of surface surface water water back back into the the hole. hole. (Photo (Photo by Don Clamp) Clamp) After After dipping dipping out out as much much water water as possible, possible, the the charge charge should should promptly promptly be placed placed into into the the hole and and stemmed stemmed (repacked) (repacked) before before water water can can seep in. The excavated excavated material material is repacked repacked as uniformly as possible possible by hand hand and and foot, foot, care care uniformly being taken taken to protect protect the the loose loose eIJLd end of the the fuse fuse being Primacord. or Primacord. Detonation placeDetonation should should immediately immediately follow placement ment and and stemming stemming to prevent prevent water water from reachreaching the the ANFO mixture mixture in significant significant amounts. amounts. ing This This is quickly quickly accomplished accomplished for single single charges, charges, but multiple multiple charges, charges, using using Prima.cord, Primacord, require require but more more time time for placement placement prior prior to detonation. detonation. Primacord main main line line is attached attached to a A Primacord stick stick of dynamite dynamite and and placed placed in one one ANFO charge, charge, the the other other charges charges making making up the the multiples multiples connected connected to the the main main line line by Prilmacord Primacord down down lines. The required lines. required number number of down down lines, lines, each 4 to 6 feet long, long, and and the the mailo. main line line should should be cut from the the Primacord Primacord coil prior prior to preparapreparation tion of the the charges. charges. Keep the the cut cut ends ends of all lines lines lines out out of water. water. Attachment Attachment o,r of down down lines to the the main line line should should be done done after after placement placement and stemming stemming of all charges. charges. Down Down lines lines are are and fastened fastened at right right angles angles to the the ma:in main lines lines using using a double-wrap, double-wrap, half-hitch half-hitch knot knot (Fig. (Fig. 4). Two caps, caps, one with with safety safety fuse fuse attached, attached, TWo are then then placed placed side by side and and taped taped securely securely to the beyond the main main line of Primacord Primacord a few feet feet beyond the pointed in the last last charge. charge. The The caps should should ·be be pointed in the void the direction direction of the the line line of detonation. detonation. A Avoid loops and sharp sharp kinks kinks or angles angles that direct that direct loops the Primacord Prima cord back toward toward the the oincoming oncoming line the line detonation. of detonation. �COP' \ Pr;moeord Moin Line F ••" ~ (---DownLines-) STemmino ANFO Mi~l ••re in Plo,lie BoO Dynamite Fig. 4. Diagram Diagram of method used in connecting connecting multiple multiple Fig. method used charges of ANFO to detonating detonating cord. (Drawing by charges cord. (Drawing Velma Fredrickson) Velma Fredrick.son) Suggested Charge Charge and and Pothole Pothole Size Size Suggested ANFO blasting blasting for wildlife habitat habitat is best best utilized small potholes. potholes. The actual actual utilized in creating creating small upper charge size depends depends primarily primarily upper limit limit of charge the proximity proximity of houses on the houses and and the efficiency efficiency large charges charges as compared compared to smaller smaller ones. ones. of large Single or multiple multiple charges charges totaling totaling 150 150 pounds pounds Single usually break break windows windows one-half more usually one-half mile or more away. The comparative comparative efficiency charge sizes, The efficiency of charge terms of cost cost per unit of surface surface water in terms per unit water created, has has not not been been determined determined to date for all ated, possible sizes. Recent Recent work in Colorado Colorado has possible yielded this information for four four of the the most most yielded this information common charge Table 1 (Hopper (Hopper 1968). 1968). common charge sizes, Table The 25and 50-lb. 50-lb. sizes were single single charges, charges, The 25- and the 7575- and and 150-lb. 150-lb. sizes were multiple multiple while the charges. consisted of three, three, 75-lb. size consisted charges. The 75-lb. 25-lb. charges placed placed 11 11 or 12 12 feet apart in the the 25-lb. charges apart in form of a triangle; triangle; and the 150-lb. 150-lb. size conand the sisted of three three 50-lb. charges set 15 feet apart apart sisted 50-lb. charges set 15 75-lb. size was the most efficient, efficient, (Fig. 5). The 75-lb. the most averaging $2.01 $2.01 per 100 square square feet of surface surface averaging per 100 water created, created, followed followed by the the 150-lb. 150-lb. size at at water $2.21. Potholes Potholes blasted blasted with with these these sizes also $2.21. received more more duck use use than than those with those created created with received single charges charges of 25 25 and 50 50 pounds pounds of ANFO. single Table 1. 1. Relationship Relationship of total and surface surface total cost and area of four blasted with with area four sizes of potholes potholes blasted ammonium nitrate-fuel mixtures. ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures. Charge Charge Size (Ibs.) (lbs.) 25 50 75 150 150 Total Cost Ave. Surface Surface Ave. Cost Cost Total Cost Ave. Ave. per Pothole Pothole Area per Pothole Pothole per 100 Sq. Ft. Ft. per Area per per 100 (dollars) (sq. ft.) ft.) (dollars) (dollars) (sq. (dollars) 4.87 4.87 7.11 11.47 11.47 18.81 18.81 201 294 294. 570 570 851 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.01 2.01 2.21 Multiple charges mentioned in Multiple charges of the size mentioned the foregoing foregoing are are recommended recommended for general the general waterwaterhabitat development development work. Larger Larger charges charges fowl habitat are not not normally normally advised, advised, but but experimentation experimentation with other other charge charge sizes may yield valuable with valuable results. results. Fig. 5. Three 50-pound charges charges of ammonium nitrate-fuel Fig. Three 50-pound ammoniwn nitrate-fuel set 15 15 feet apart in a triangle produced oil set feet apart triangle pattern pattern produced this clover-leaf shaped, shaped, 40-foot pothole. (Photo by this clover-leaf pothole . (Photo by Richard Hopper) Hopper) Richard PRECAUTIONS Federal, state state and local laws regulate regulate the the Federal, storage and use explosives in some parts storage use of explosives parts country. These laws should should be conthe country. These of the sulted and and permits permits obtained, required, prior prior sulted obtained, if required, undertaking blasting safety blasting of any any kind. All safety to undertaking recommendations should should be closely adhered adhered to recommendations the transportation, transportation, storage and use of all in the storage and use explosives and blasting agents. agents. A list of "Do's "Do's and blasting explosives and Don'ts" is usually with packaged and Don'ts" usually enclosed enclosed with packaged explosives. Reference Reference to reading material listed listed explosives_ reading material under Literature Literature Cited and Suggested Reading Reading under and Suggested is also suggested. suggested. Beginners should should use small, single single charges charges in use small, Beginners becoming with the technique. technique. They becoming familiar familiar with They should also obtain obtain the assistance persons should assistance of persons experienced in handling explosives before before underunderexperienced handling explosives taking blasting blasting alone. alone. The The ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate taking pothole blasting blasting technique technique is safe as long long as pothole the hazards hazards are clearly clearly understood understood and respected. respected. the should be worn while handling handling dynamite dynamite Gloves should prevent headaches. headaches. to prevent LITERATURE CITED AND AND SUGGESTED LITERATURE SUGGESTED READING Blasting with ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures. mixtures. Blasting ammonium nitrate-fuel 1963. Spencer Spencer Chemical Co., Dwight Dwight Bldg., 196.1. Kansas City, Mo. 25 25 p. Kansas Hopper, R. M. 1968. Ammonium Ammonium nitrate nitrate pothole pothole M. 1968. Hopper, blasting study. study. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Fish and blasting Parks, 51-64. Parks, Game Res. Rept. Oct., pp. 51-64. Mathiak, H. A. 1965. 1965. Pothole Pothole blasting blasting for wildMathiak, life. Wisc. Cons. 352. 31 31 p. Publ. 352. life. Cons . Dept., Publ. Mathisen, J., Byelich and R. Radtke. Radtke. 1964. 1964. J., J. Byelich Mathisen, The use of ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate for marsh marsh The use blasting. blasting. Trans. Trans . N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 29: 29: 143-150. 143-150. Primacord detonating detonating fuse. 1963. 1963. The EnsignEnsignPrimacord Bickford Co., Simsbury, Simsbury, Conn. Conn. 73 73 p. Bickford recommendations for sensitized sensitized ammoniammoniSafety recommendations nitrate blasting blasting agents. 1963. U. S. um nitrate agents. 1963. Dept. Int., Int., Bur. 8179. 15 15 p. Bur_ Mines, Circ. 8179. Richard M. M. Hopper Hopper Richard Researcher Wildlife Researcher July, 1971 1971 July, �Outdoor Facts Facts ' PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO I DEPARTMENToFNATURAL DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS PARKS , " ..~ ~ , ' Number Number 86 86 Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet DETERMINATION DETERMINATION OF BLUE BLUE GROUSE SEX SEX AND AGE FROM WING CHARACTE:RISTICS CHARACTERISTICS a Knowledge Knowledge concerning concerning the the characteristics characteristics of game bird bird populations populations is essential essential in order order to evaluate evaluate the the effects effects of harvest harvest regulations regulations forthe for the various various species. species. While censuses censuses conducted conducted during during breeding breeding and brood brood periods periods are best best for managemanagement ment purposes, purposes, data data from this this source source are not available available for some some game species species because because of terrain, terrain, vegetative vegetative composition, composition, inaccessibility, inaccessibility, inadequate inadequate census census techniques, techniques, and manpower. manpower. Blue grouse grouse (Dendragapus (Dendragapus obscurus) obscurus) fit into into this this category category for the the species species occurs occurs in varying varying densities over over more more than than 20,000 20,000 square square miles densities of diverse diverse habitats habitats and terrain terrain in Colorado Colorado (Rogers (Rogers 1968). While breeding breeding and and production production surveys surveys 1968). grouse in Colorado Colorado presently presently cannot cannot for blue grouse systematically and routinely routinely conducted, conducted, collecbe systematically tion tion of wings from hunter-harvested hunter-harvested birds is feasible. feasible. From From wing wing analyses, analyses, information information can be obtained obtained for sex, sex, age, and nesting nesting success success of breeding breeding females. females. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Determil11ation Determination of Sex Blue Blue grouse grouse are are sexually sexually dimorphic, dimorphic, and and at a distance distance males males appear appear slate slate gray gray and and females females brown. brown. The The difference difference in distant distant appearance appearance is also observable most birds birds can observable in in wings, wings, and most can be sexed sexed by wing wing color color alone. alone. The The wings wings of female female brown and blue grouse grouse have have a more more mottled mottled brown and buffy buffy a:ppearance appearance than than the the wings wings of males males (Fig. 1). More specifically, specifically, secondary secondary and and tertiary tertiary METHODS METHODS In In the the course course of conducting conducting hunter hunter bag checks for white-tailed white-tailed ptarmigan ptarmigan (Lagopus (Lagopus leucurus), leucurus), 1966-1969, 1966-1969, and and band-tailed band-tailed pigeon pigeon wings were obtained (Columba (Columba fasciata) fasciata) in 1970, 1970,wings obtained from more more than than 100 100 blue blue grouse grouse of known known sex (gonadal (gonadal inspection) inspection) and determinable determinable age. Data collected collected in Colorado Colorado concerning concerning the the sex of blue blue grouse grouse as indicated indicated by wings, wings, parallel parallel that that rereported from Montana. ported by Mussehl Mussehl and and Leik (1963) (1963)from Montana. The age of all birds birds examined examined was determined determined by methods methods described described by Buss Buss and and Schottelius Schottelius (1954), (1954), Bendell Bendell (1955), (1955), Boag (1965), (1965), and SchladSchladweiler weiler et al. (1970). (1970). Essentially, Essentially, the the techniques techniques used used were based based on visual visual examination examination of wing plumage plumage characters characters and and primary primary replacement. replacement. a Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-37-R W-37-R Contribution 1. Wings Wings of adult adult blue grouse: female female (top) (top) and and Fig. 1. blue grouse: male (bottom). male 1(bottom). �Fig. 2. Wings Wings of of juvenile juvenile blue blue grouse: grouse: and male male (bottom). (bottom). and female top ) female ((top) Fig. Fig. 3. 3. Wings Wings of of blue blue grouse: grouse: adult adult (left) (left) and and juvenile juvenile (right), (right), illustrating illustrating males males (top) (top) and female:, females (bottom). (bottom). coverts coverts of females females have have numerous numerous blotches blotches of brown, brown, buff buff and and black barred. barred. These These characters characters can be used used to sex most most adults adults (Fig. (Fig. 1) 1) and chicks older older than than six weeks (Fig. (Fig. 2). Wings of chicks both both adults adults and and young-of-the-year young-of-the-year are pictured pictured in Figure Figure 3. Contrary Contrary to published published data for Montana (Mussehl (Mussehl and and Leik 1963), 1963), sex of youngyoungMontana of-the-year, as indicated indicated by wing wing characteristics, characteristics, of-the-year, readily determined determined for for Colorado Colorado blue blue can be readily grouse. grouse. juvenile or 10. juvenile primaries primaries 9 and/ and/or 10. If retained, retained, these primaries primaries will be faded faded and and worin, worn, in these in contrast to primaries 8 through 1. Yowag-of-thetrast primaries through 1. Young-of-theyear blue blue grouse grouse are those those which which have have juvenile year juvenile primaries 9 and 10 and frequently 8 , primaries and 10 and frequently 8,1 all new new in appearance appearance and and none none worn worn an<il and frayed. frayed. Juvenile primaries primaries are pointed pointed and and narrow narrow (Fig. (Fig. Juvenile 2) when when compared compared with with adult adult primaries primaries (Fig. (Fig. 1). Upon Upon hatching, hatching, all grouse grouse have have only only 8 juvejuvenile primaries. At approximately primaries. approximately 3 weeks weeks of age, juvenile juvenile primaries primaries 9 and and 10 10 (outermost (outermost two) two) age, appear while while juvenile juvenile primary primary 11 is replaced replaced by an an appear adult primary primary at about about this this time. Replacement Replacement adult juvenile primaries primaries 2 through through 8 by adult adult priof juvenile maries maries then then proceeds proceeds at a rate rate of about about one one every every seven seven days. Juvenile Juvenile primaries primaries 9 and and 10 10 are not not replaced replaced until until August August or September September of the the year year following following hatching hatching (14-Ui (14-15 months months of age). age). Thus, Thus, examination examination of the the outer outer two primary primary feathers feathers can be used used to distinguish distinguish age classes. classes. In examining Figure 1, 1, no old priIn examining Figure and maries maries are apparent, apparent, and the the outer outer primaries maries are in the the process process of being being replaced. replaced. Thus, these these wings wings are from adutlt adult birds. birds. Thus, Determination Determination of Age Age blue grouse grouse collected collected during during the the Wings of blue hunting hunting season season can be easily easily separated separated into into adult adult and and juvenile juvenile (young-of-the-year) (young-of-the-year) categories. categories. In some some instances, instances, sub adults adults can be distinguished, distinguished, In but these these birds birds should should properly properly be placed placed in the the but adult class. Adult Adult blue blue grouse grouse are those those which which adult have molted molted all of the the 10 10 wing wing primaries primaries at have least least once and and are in their their second second year year of life or older. Primaries Primaries are numbered numbered proximal proximal to distal (inside (inside to outside), outside), and primaries primaries are replaced in sequence sequence from 1 (inside) (inside) to 10 10 (out(outreplaced side). Subadults side). Subadults are those those which which still retain retain �Fig. 4. 4. Wings of subadult subadult blue grouse: grouse: female female (bottom) (bottom) and and male male (top) (top).. Fig. 5. 5. Wings of blue blue grouse: grouse: adult adult (left) (left) and and subadult subadult (right), (right), illustrating illustrating males males (top) (top) and and females females (bottom). (bottom). In Figure Figure 2, the the outer outer two primaries primaries are new, new, pointed, and and narrow narrow when when compared compared with with pripointed, maries 8 through through 1 on the the same same wings wings and and maries the the outer outer primaries primaries of the the wings wings pictured pictured in Figure 1. 1. These These wings wings are obviously obviously from young young Figure birds, and and the the differences differences between between adults adults and birds, juveniles juveniles are clearly clearly depicted depicted in Figure Figure 3. Figure Figure 4 illustrates illustrates wings wings from birds birds properly properly classed classed as subadults sub adults {approximately (approximately 14-15months 14-15months age). In both both situations, situations, only only one pointed, pointed, of age). narrow primary primary (PlO) (PI0) is still present, present, contrasting contrasting narrow sharply with with the the more more rounded, rounded, broad broad primaries primaries sharply 8 through through 1 (primary (primary 9 on both both wings wings is in the the process process of being being replaced). replaced). Wings of subadults, subadults, in contrast contrast to adults, adults, are further further compared compared in Figure Figure 5. 5. Since most most subadults sub adults are are capable capable of breeding, the the subadult sub adult and and adult adult classes classes may breeding, therefore therefore be combined combined in order order to compute compute juvenile:adult ratios. ratios. juvenile:adult primary primary molt molt later later than than males, males, su1~cessful successful nesters nesters their beginning beginning within within seven seven days afteir after hatching hatching their clutches. Unsuccessful clutches. Unsuccessful females; females start start molting molting primaries within within seven seven days of nest nest failure failure and and primaries molt molt similarly similarly to males males but but faster faster than than successful successful females. Females Females with with chicks thus thus have have a defemales. layed primary primary molt, molt, usually usually re,taining retaining 2 or 3 primaries (10, (10, 9, and and frequently frequently 8) until until old primaries mid- or late late September, September, while umsuccessful unsuccessful feprimary, males males retain retain no primaries, primaries, or one one old primary, into September September (Fig. (Fig. 6). There,fore, Therefore, minimum minimum into estimates of the the percentage percentage of 1successful hens successful hens estimates obtained from wings 1Df of blue blue grouse can be obtained grouse harvested harvested in September. September. By early early October, October, differbetween successful successful· and unsuccessful unsuccessful feences between primary molt molt are sligh1t slight and cannot be and cannot be males in primary used to estimate estimate nesting nesting success. success. used Estimation of Nesting Nesting Success Success Estimation Replacement of primaries, primaries, which which occurs occurs only only Replacement once a year, year, is initiated initiated in males males following following once termination termination of breeding breeding activities, activities, usually usually beFemales ginning ginning in late late June. June. Females initiate initiate their their ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. R. A. Ryder, Fishery and Ryder, Departmenit Department of Fishery and Biology, Colorado Colorado State State University, University, H. D. Wildlife Biology, Funlc Funk and and Dr. Lee Lee E. Yeager, Yeager, Colorado Colorado Division Division Fish and and Parks Parks critically critically reviewed of Game, Fish reviewed this this paper. Their Their reviews reviews are appreciated appreciated and and grategratepaper. acknowledged. fully acknowledged. �Fig. Fig. 6. 6. Wings Wings of female female blue blue grouse: grouse: successful successful (left) (left) and and unsuccessful unsuccessful (right). (right). LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED Bendell, Bendell, J. F. 1955. 1955. Age, molt and and weight weight charCondor acteristics acteristics of blue blue grouse. grouse. Condor 57(6): 354-361. 354-361. Boag, Boag, D. A. 1965. 1965. Indicators Indicators of sex, age and and breeding phenology phenology in blue blue grouse. grouse. JJ.. Wildl. Wild!. breeding 103-108. Mgmt. 29(1): 103-108. Buss, I. 0., and B. A. Schottelius. Schottelius. 1954. 1954. BreedBreedBuss, ing J. ing age of blue blue grouse. grouse. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. Rogers, Rogers, G. G. E. 1968. 1968. The The blue grouse grouse in Colorado. rado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish Fish and Parks Parks.. Tech. Publ. Pub!' No. 21. 21. 63 63 p. Schladweiler, Schladweiler, P., T. W. W. Mussehl, Mussehl, and R. J. Greene. 1970. 1970. Age determination determination of juvenile juvenile Greene. blue J. blue grouse grouse by primary primary development. development. Wild!. Mgmt. 37(3):64~52. 37(3):649-652. Wildl. 18(1): 137-138. 137-138. Mussehl, Mussehl, T. W., and and T. H. Leik. 1963. 1963. Sexing Sexing wings wings of adult adult blue blue grouse. grouse. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 27(1): 102-106. 102-106. Clait E. E. Braun Braun Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Assistant August, August, 1971 1971 �Outdoor Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION ISH AND DIVISION OF OF GAME. GAME, F FISH AND PARKS PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number Number 87 STOCKING RATES FOR MULE DEER DEER AND LIVESTOCK ON CERTAIN CERTAIN PINON-JUNIPER PINON-JUNIPER AREAS AREASaa Research Research into into the the nature nature and and extent extent of competition petition among among mule mule deer, cattle, cattle, and domestic domestic sheep sheep for forage forage in the the piiion-juniper pinon-juniper range range type of northwestern northwestern Colorado Colorado was conducted conducted at Little Little through 1968. Hills Experiment Experiment Station Station from 1948 1948through 1968. Study Study areas areas were were in two range range types types classified classified by the the U.S. Soil Conservation Conservation Service Service as piiionpiiionjuniper woodland juniper woodland and and rocky rocky foothills. foothills. Slopes here here are steeper steeper and and rougher rougher than than is typical typical of these these two types types in Colorado. Colorado. Almost Almost twofifth of the the area area consisted consisted of slopes slopes greater greater than than 40 40 percent, percent, ranging ranging from 3 to 70 70 percent percent (Fig. 1). Exposures Exposures were largely largely northerly northerly along along Dry Fork Fork Creek, a tributary tributary of Piceance Piceance Creek Creek which which flows into into the the lower lower White River River about35 about 35 miles west west of Meeker, Meeker, Colorado. Colorado. METHODS METHODS Control Control of the the experimental experimental foraging foraging animals animals required. Sturdy fences, fences, tall enough enough to Sturdy was required. prevent prevent deer passage, passage, were were built buiit to enclose enclose nine pastures pastures 77 77 to 206 206 acres acres in size (McKean nine 1970). Deer alone alone were were placed placed in three three pastures, pastures, 1970). stocked for light, light, moderate moderate and heavy heavy grazing grazing stocked intensities. Cattle intensities. Cattle and and domestic domestic sheep sheep were placed placed in two pastures pastures each each at moderate moderate and and heavy stocking stocking rates. rates. And finally, finally, two pastures pastures heavy were dually dually stocked stocked at moderate moderate rates, rates, one with with deer and cattle, cattle, the the other other with with deer deer and and sheep. sheep. deer Stocking Stocking for each animal animal class was was based based upon upon observed observed floristic floristic composition composition of the the range range and estimated estimated or measured measured animal animal preference preference for plant plant species species during during the the seasons seasons grazed. grazed. Grazing periods periods were selected selected to match match those those federal range range lands lands in the the area. area. Cattle Cattle and on federal sheep were grazed grazed six weeks each in spring spring sheep and and fall. Deer were stocked stocked for approximately approximately 5 1/ 2 months 1/2 months during during winter winter only. This This entailed entailed capturing capturing up ttoo 100 100 deer each each fall and removing removing them in the the spring. spring. them After several several years years of trial trial and error error stockstockAfter three grazing grazing intensities intensities were were established established ing, three aa Contlibution Contribution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-101-R W-IOI-R for mule mule deer: heavy, heavy, 0.75 0.75 acres per per deer deer per per month month (40 (40 deer deer days per acre); acre); moderate, moderate, 2 15 deer acres per per deer deer per per month month ((15 deer days per per acre); light, 3 acres per per month acre); and and light, per deer deer per month (10 grazing (10 deer deer days per per acre). acre). Similar Similar livestock livestock grazing levels levels were established, established, as follows: follows: cattle cattle- heavy, heavy, 10 10 acres per per cow per per month month (3 cow days days per month per acre); acre); moderate, moderate, 20 20 acres per per cow per month (1.5 (1.5 cow days per per acre); acre); sheep sheep -- heavy, heavy, 1.5 acres per per sheep sheep per month month (20 (20 shc~ep sheep days per per acre); acre); moderate, moderate, 3 acres acres per per sheejp sheep per per month month (10 (10 sheep sheep days per per acre). acre). Plant Plant utilization utilization was was determined determined by measuremeasurement ment of browse browse stems stems and and grass grass leaves leaves before before Fig. woodland Fig. 1. 1. A pinon-juniper pinon-juniper woodland range range site site adjacent adjacent to the typical steep the Little Little Hills Hills pastures pastures showing showing typical steep slopes but but with with good good interspersion interspersion of m,ountain mountain browse, browse, slopes big vegetative types. big sagebrush sagebruSh and and piiion-juniper pmon-juniper vegetative types. This This is excellent excellent deer deer winter winter range, range, only only fair fair sheep sheep range, and range, and poor poor cow range. range. (Photo (Photo by by Dean Dean E. Medin) Medin) E. �and after after grazing, grazing, or by various various ocular ocular estimate estimate methods methods (McKean (McKean and Hartmann Bartmann 1971), 1971), made made immediately immediately after after each each pasture pasture had been been grazed grazed and were preceded preceded by training training studies studies to improve improve accuracy. accuracy. The The nature nature and extent extent of competition competition was further further indicated, indicated, indirectly, indirectly, by measurements measurements of changes changes in vegetative vegetative ground ground cover, plant plant vigor, vigor, and condition condition of each pasture, pasture, as well as by weight weight changes changes of livestock livestock and and mortality mortality of mule mule deer. GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR STOCKING Following Following are general general guidelines guidelines to proper proper grazing grazing for this this particular particular range range type, type, based based on conclusions conclusions drawn drawn from analysis analysis of data data concerning cerning forage forage utilization utilization and plant plant and and animal animal responses responses to grazing grazing over over the the 20-year period period 1948-1968. Each Each recommendation recommendation is made made with with 1948-1968. primary primary concern concern for protection protection of "key" "key" forage forage plants plants for the the animal animal in question, question, with with secondary secondary attention attention to competition competition between between animal animal species. species. 1. Stocking Stocking rates rates for mule mule deer deer should should not not exceed exceed approximately approximately two acres per per deer per per month (15-20 (15-20 deer deer days per acre) acre) to avoid avoid overmonth utilization of the the "key" "key" browse browse species: species: mounmounutilization tain mahogany mahogany (Cercocarpus (Cereoearpus monta.nus), montanus), bitterbittertain brush brush (Purshia (Purshia tri.dentata) tridentata) and and serviceberry serviceberry (Amelanchier (Amelanehier utahensis), utahensis), as well as btg big sagesagebrush Artemisia t-ridentata) brush ((Artemisia tridentata) on sites sites where where it it thoroughly intermingled intermingled with with the the foregoing foregoing is thoroughly species. species. 2. Stocking Stocking rates rates for cattle cattle under under spring-fall spring-fall 2. acres grazing grazing should should not exceed exceed approximately approximately 20 20acres per month month (1.5 -- 2.0 2.0 cow days per per acre) per cow per to avoid avoid over-utilization over-utilization of the following following abundant abundant and Poa spp.), and palatable palatable grasses: grasses: bluegrasses bluegrasses ((Poa spp.), Indian ricegrass ricegrass (Oryzopsis (Oryzopsis hymenoides), hymenoides), beardbeardIndian less bluebunch bluebunch wheatgrass wheatgrass ((Agropyron inerme) less Agropyron inerme) and Nebraska Nebraska sedge sedge (Carex nebraskensis). nebraskensis). Stockand ing ing at or below below· these these rates rates will prevent prevent total total elimination of the the highly highly preferred, preferred, but but less elimination abundant abundant needle-and-thread needle-and-thread (Stipa (Stipa comata) eomata) and possibly cristota). possibly prame prame junegrass junegrass (Koelerio (Koeleria eristata). mule Undesirable Undesirable competition competition between between cattle cattle and and mule deer for bitterbrush bitterbrush and and mountain mountain mahogany mahogany will also be prevented. prevented. 3. Stocking Stocking rates rates for sheep sheep undi~r under spring-fall spring-fall three grazing grazing should should not not exceed exceed approximately approximately three acres per sheep sheep per month month (10-15 (10-15 sheep sheep days per acre) acre) to avoid over-utilization over-utilization of' of bitterbrush, bitterbrush, mountain mountain mahogany, mahogany, bluegrasses, bluegrasses, needle-andneedle-andthread and thread and espedally especially the the more more suc1:ulent succulent forbs. forbs. With with mule mule With this this stocking stocking rate competition competition with deer for all ""key" key" browse browse spec:ies species will be mitigated. mitigated. 4. 4. Deer Deer and and sheep sheep in combination, combination, or deer deer and cattle, cattle, can be be grazed under under moderate moderate rates rates (as described described above) above) without without adverse adverse effects effects to the the range range or the animal. animal. 5. Restrictive leave Restrictive grazing, grazing, as described, described, will leave numerous, less-palatable plants untouched. untouched. numerous, less-palatable plants These are not not wasted wasted for they they serve serve as protective These protective against soil erosion, erosion, perpetuate perpetuate organic organic cover against matter matter in the the soil, and serve serve as shelter shelter for all creatures, creatures, domestic domestic and and wild. Rem.oval Removal of even even unpalatable burning, unpalatable plants plants on steep steep slopes slopes by burning, spraying, chaining, chaining, grazing, grazing, or orothermeansreprespraying, other means represents a mistaken sents .a mistaken concept concept of management management and and should should never never be practiced. practiced. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED McKean, W. T. 1970. deer. 1970. Fencing Fencing for for mule mule deer. Game Info. Info. Leaflet Leaflet No. 81, 81, Colo. Div. of Grune, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. 2 p. 1971. McKean, W. W. T. and R. M. M. Bartmann. Bartmann. 1971. Deer-livestock Deer-livestock relations relations on a piirion-juniper pillon-juniper range range in northwestern northwestern Colorado. Colorado. Game Research search Report, Report, July July 1971. 1971. Colorado Colorado Division of Grune, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks. Parks. Denver. Denver. vision (processed). (processed). McKean William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher Researcher August, 1971 1971 August, �Quta00 Outdoor' Facts a ·ts PU BLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO D EPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION ARKS DIVISION OF GAME. GAME, FISH AND AND P PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Number Number 88 88 BREEDING BREEDING DATES OF COLORADO COLORADO ELK ELK 3 AS ESTIMATED ESTIMATED BY FETAL FETAL GROWTH CURVES CURVESa Breeding Breeding chronology chronology and and characteristics characteristics of prenatal prenatal development development in big game species have have received received increased increased attention attention in recent recent years years.. Altmann Altmann (1956) (1956) speculated speculated that that hunting hunting may interinterfere with with the normal normal progress progress of the the rut rut in Rocky Mountain Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni nelsoni Bailey Bailey)J in such such a way as to decrease decrease producproductivity. tivity. Variations Variations in average average breeding breeding dates in Columbian Columbian black-tailed black-tailed deer deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus columbianus Rich.} Rich.) and mule mule deer (O. (0. h. h. hemionus hemionus Raf.} Raf.) were reported reported by Bischoff (1957), (1957), who suspected suspected that that hunting hunting might might delay breeding activities. activities. If these these speculations speculations are valid, breeding breeding data data may be useful useful in establishing establishing dates for early season season elk hunts hunts or in requesting requesting cessation cessation of logging operations operations in important important elk breeding breeding logging areas. There There is no documented documented information information on areas. breeding dates dates for elk in Colorado. breeding PROCEDURE PROCEDURE Morrison Morrison et al. (1959) (1959) constructed constructed a semilogarithmic logarithmic growth growth curve curve from eight eight known-age known-age embryos and one full-term calf. The curve elk embryos was used used to estimate estimate conception conception dates in two Our paper Montana Montana elk herds. herds. paper reports reports on the the application of Morrison's Morrison's curve to prenatal prenatal young young application from 143 143 cow elk killed during during December December hunts, hunts, 1965 and and 1966, 1966, in the the San Juan Juan Basin, Basin, southsouthwestern Colorado. Conception Conception dates thus thus estiwestern mated mated are compared compared with similar similar data from other other Mountain elk herds. herds. Rocky Mountain Every Every hunter hunter who drew a cow elk permit this December December hunt hunt was supplied supplied detailed detailed for this instructions instructions for removing removing the ovaries ovaries and other other parts parts of the reproductive reproductive tract tract should should he kill a cow. A plastic plastic sack and and other other materials materials were furnished the hunter, hunter, who was asked to leave leave furnished the tract tract at one of the the check stations stations adjacent adjacent the to the the special special late-hunt late-hunt area. When a tract tract was obtained obtained it was assigned assigned a number, number, age of the the cow was estimated estimated according according to tooth tooth wear a a Contribution Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R W-38-R and replacement replacement (Quimby (Quimby and Ga:ab Gaab 1957), 1957), date date and location the specilocation of kill were were recorded, recorded, and and the men placed in men was wrapped wrapped in cheesecloth cheesecloth and and placed in buffered buffered formalin. formalin. The 1965 hunt was hunt in the the San Ju:an Juan Basin Basin was for 16 days, December 4-19, the 1966 hunt hunt 4-19, and the Fifty-eight was for 9 days, December December 10-18,. 10-18. Fifty-eight usable usable tracts tracts were received received in 1H65 1965 and and 85 in in 1966, all with ovaries or fetuses ovaries and/ and/or fetuses present. present. In each of the the two years, years, weights weights and and measurements measurements were taken taken from one one and and one-half one-half to two months months after after the tracts tracts were were collected. collected. Fetuses were weighed weighed to the nearest nearest 0.1 0.1 g with Fetuses with a triple-beam triple-beam analytical analytical balance. balance. Eight Eight measurements, measurements, to the nearest nearest millimeter, Only the the meter, were taken taken of each fetms. fetus. crown-rump crown-rump length length measurement measurement for the the smaller smaller embryos embryos and the the forehead-rump forehead-rump measurement measurement larger embryos embryos (Morrison (Morrison et et al. 1959) 1959) for the larger were used young. used to estimate estimate the the age of prenatal prenatal young. crown-rump anj anj forehead-rump forehead-rump lengths The crown-rump lengths were were measured with calipers calipers from the the anteriormost anteriormost measured point of the the crown and forehead. forehead, , respectively, point respectively, posteriormost point point of the the nunp. rump. to the posteriormost FINDINGS FINDINGS Because the the scale of the the published published growth growth Because (Morrison et al. 1959) 1959) was too small small for curve (Morrison accurate use, a graph graph was constructed constructed from from accurate data furnished furnished by these these authors. authors. By plotting data plotting measurements on this crown-forehead-rump crown-forehead-rump measurements this curve, were esticurve, the the ages ages of 98 98 prenatal prenatal ymmg young were mated. mated. By By backdating backdating fetus age from the the date of death, death, conception conception dates dates of the the 98 98 prenatal prenatal young young were likewise likewise estimated. estimated. Figure 11 indicates indicates conception conception dates dates and and breedbreedFigure ing peaks of cow elk from the the National National Bison Bison Range, Yellowstone Range, Montana, Montana, and and from northern northern Yellowstone Park, Park, Gardiner, Gardiner, Montana. Montana. Figure Figure 2 shows the the average conception conception date and the breeding breeding peak peak average of cow elk from the San Juan Juan Basin Basin of Colorado. rado. On the the Bison Bison Range and and il:1 in Yellowstone Yellowstone Park, Park, measurements measurements indicated indicated that that most most cows conceived during during the period period of S:eptember September 26 conceived October 10, 10, median median dates being being October October 3 - Octo- �6, respectively. respectively. Colorado Colorado elk from the the San ber 6, Juan Basin Basin indicated indicated conception conception dates ranging Juan dates ranging from September September 11 11 to October 24 and a mean mean October 24 conception date October 2. 2. conception date of October 28 DAYS DAYS 28 Fig. 3. Estimated Estimated age Fig. age of elk fetuses collected collected in DecemDecemfetuses ber, 1966, San Juan Juan Basin, Basin, ber, 1966, Colorado. Colorado. 31 DAYS DAYS at GARDINER GAROltfE"R BISON RA~GE RANGE IUSOH- 37 DAYS DAYS 37 OATES D.tt,TES Fig. 1. 1. Conception Conception dates and peak peak of breeding Fig. dates and breeding for elk from the Bison Range, Range, Montanaandnorthem Montana and northern the National National Bison from Yellowstone Park, Gardiner, Montana. Montana. Yellowstone Park , Gardiner, 50 DAYS 1966 lli66 1965 :z 62 DAYS G2. ~ :5 ~ o "'~ ~ w Ii.> ~'t..-....:,h\ ~,(hl.':;....:,~. OATES DtiT.E.S Fig. 2. Conception Conception dates dates and and peak peak of breeding Fig. breeding for for elk elk from the San Juan Juan Basin, Basin, Colorado, Colorado, 1965 1965 and and 1966. 1966. the San from These data data suggest suggest similar breeding seasons seasons These similar breeding the populations sampled. emphasize populations sampled. We emphasize for the the approximate approximate nature nature of breeding breeding dates dates and the the need need for more more information information on the breeding the the breeding biology of elk. biology Table Conception dates dates in free-ranging free-ranging elk. elk Table 11 - Conception as estimated estimated from a growth growth curve curve of knownknownembryos. age embryos. Average Date Average Date of Conception Conception of Range Range of Dates Dates of 18 October 3 October 22 October October 6 Sept. 1717Sept. Oct. 31 3a Oct. Sept. 24Sept. Oct. 25 a Oct. Area Area Years Years Collected Collected No.. or of No Embryos Embryos Montana Montana National Bison Range Range National Bison 1954-65 l954-65 Northern Yellowstone Nort)lem Yellowstone 1948 Colorado Colorado San Juan Basin SanJW\ll Basin 1965 48 October 8 October San Juan Juan Basin Basin San 1966 1966 50 Sept. 29 & Sept. & 30 Sept. 20Sept. Oct. 24 b Oct. Sept. ll11Sept. Oct. 21 b Oct. Data from from Morrison Morrison et al. (1959) a Data el al. bb Data Data from from this study. tbis study. Figure 3 indicates indicates the the size range range of elk Figure fetuses collected collected during during the the two late hunts hunts in fetuses the Juan Basin Basin of Colorado, Colorado, and is indicathe San Juan the variability conception dates dates that that variability in conception tive of the occur in free-ranging herds. may occur free-ranging herds. ,f>.::L:.,~, ,6_..._, '. ,J. __ .••• ,9..• ~ ~ Biologists have, for the specuBiologists have, the most most part, part, speculated that that big game animals animals such such as elk probably probably lated breed much later later in the southern portions the southern portions of breed much their ranges ranges than north. Data presented their than farther farther north. presented here, sample size, do not not subhere, while while limited limited in sample stantiate this reasoning. reasoning. When estimated estimated constantiate ception dates dates for Colorado elk are compared ception are compared with Montana herds, herds, it appears appears with those those of two Montana that breeding activities activities occur occur at nearly nearly the the same that breeding same time. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE Altmann, M. 1956. 1956. Patterns Patterns of herd herd behavior behavior Altmann, M. in free-ranging free-ranging elk of Wyoming. Wyoming. Zoologica 4(2):65-71. 4(2) :65-71. Bischoff, A. I. 1957. The breeding season Bischoff, 1957. breeding season California deer herds. herds. Calif. Fish Fish of some California and Game 43(1): 91-96. 91-96. Morrison, J. J. A., C. C. E. Trainer, Trainer, and P. L. Wright. Morrison, Wright. 1959. Breeding Breeding season season in elk as determined determined 1959. known-age embryos· embryos.. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. from known-age 23(1): 27-34. Z7-34. Quimby, D. D. C., and J. E. Gaab. 1957. 1957. ManiQuimby, and J. bular dentition dentition as an an age indicator indicator in Rocky bular Mountain elk elk.. J. J. Wild!. Wild!. Mgmt. 21(4): 435-451. 435-451. Mountain Raymond JJ._Boyd Raymond Wildlife Researcher Researcher and Errol E. Ryland Ryland Errol Principal Game Biologist Biologist Principal September, 1971 1971 September, �Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO OEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION DIVISION oFGAME. OF GAME. FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS d ' I Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet 4?_J _ Number Number 89 INFLUENCE OF LIVESTOCK LIVESTOCK AND AND MULE DEER DEER INFLUENCE UPON VIGOR OF INDIAN INDIAN RICEGRASS RICEGRASS AND AND UPON TUFTED TUFTED PHLOX PHLOX ON A PINON-JUNIPER PINON-JUNIPER RANGE RANGE aa The and The nature nature and extent extent of of competition competition between hee p, cattle, between ssheep, cattle, and and mule mule deer deer were were determined at Little Little Hills Experiment Experiment Station Station determined near Measurements near Meeker, Meeker, Colorado, Colorado, 1948-1968. 1948-1968.Measurements of plant plant response response to various various animal animal stocking stocking rates rates were were also also made. made. Within Within these these concepts, concepts, the vigor vigor of Indian Indian ricegrass ricegrass (Oryzopsis the (Oryzopsis hymenoides) hymenoides) as indicated indicated by leai leaf length, length, and and tufted phlox phlox (Phlox (Phlox caespilosa) caespitosa) as indicated indicated by tufted crown diameter, diameter, were were assessed. assessed. Both Both plants plants are are crown fair to high high in palatability palatability to the the animals animals conconfair cerned and and could could be measured measured accurately. accurately. cerned Soils of the the fenced fenced study study areas areas were were derived derived from from irregularly irregularly bedded bedded shales shales and and sandstones sandstones of the the Green Green River River and and Bridger Bridger formations. formations. They They are are generally generally shallow, shallow, weakly weakly developed, developed, and and coarse coarse in texture. texture. Phosphorus Phosphorus was deficient; deficient; but but potash, potash, organic organic matter, matter, pH, lime lime levels, levels, and and soluble soluble salts salts were were judged judged to be be adequate adequate for range range plant plant growth growth (Nielson (Nielson 1966). 1966). The The 1,192-acre area area varied varied in elevation elevation from from 6,180 to 7,000 feet. Slopes ranged from 3 to 70 6,180 7,000 feet. Slopes ranged from 70 percent percent at sites sites where where soil soil samples samples were were taken, taken, and almost almost two-fifths two-fifths of the the area area was was comprised comprised and of slopes exslopes greater greater than than 40 40 percent. percent. Northerly Northerlyexposures posures were were dominant. dominant. The The experimental experimental area area was along along Dry Fork Fork Creek Creek, , a tributar tributary y of Piceance Piceance Creek Creek which which flows flows into into the the lower lower White White River. River. Annual Annual precipitation precipitation averaged averaged 12.78 12.78 inches, inches, varying varying from from 8.85 8.85 in 1963 1963 to 16.43 16.43 in in 1961, 1961, based based on Fifty-seven percent on Station Station records records 1947-1967. 1947-1967.Fifty-seven percent of the the moisture moisture fell as rain rain in in the the six-month six-month period period April April through through September. September. Yearly Yearly tempertemperatures temperaatures averaged averaged 43.0° 43.0 F. Mean Mean monthly monthly temperatures tures varied varied from from 21.0° 21.0 F. in in January January to 65.7 65.7 in July. July. Lying Lying in in an enclosed enclosed valley, valley, the the area area received ceived a mean mean annual annual frost-free frost-free growing growing season season of only only 66 66 days days compared compared with with 92 92 days days at 0 Meeker, the the next next nearest nearest National National Weather Weather ServMeeker, ice Station. Station. METHODS MEfflODS Animals were were stocked stocked at varied varied grazing grazing inAnimals tensities, as follows: heavy tensities, follows: heavy and and moderate moderate for livestock livestock in in spring spring and and fall; heavy, heavy, moderate, moderate, and was no and light light for deer deer in winter winter only. only. There There was warm-season warm-season stocking. stocking. Details Details of stocking stocking rates, rates, stocking stocking procedures, procedures, and and fence fence construction construction may may be found 1970, 1971) McKean found in McKean McKean ((1970, 1971) and and McKean and and Bartmann Bartmann (1971). In some some years years stocking stocking rates rates varied varied considerconsiderably ably from from those those desired, desired, especially especially in the the case of mule varimule deer. deer. However, However, these these single-year single-year variables ables were were not not considered considered to have have a major major ininfluence fluence on herbaceous herbaceous plant plant vigor vigor as discussed discussed in in this this paper. paper. One 100-point, paced paced transect transect was was established established diagonally across each pasture. At each point point diagonally across each pasture. At each the the ungrazed the maximum maximum leaf leaf length length of the ungrazed Indian Indian ricegrass est the ricegrass plant plant near nearest the toe toe was recorded. recorded. Also, the mean diameter of a tufted phlox plant tufted phlox plant Also, the mean diameter was obtained obtained by measuring measuring from from the the narrow narrow and and long long axes. axes. Measurements Measurements were were made made after after growth growth was complete. complete. Similar Similar measurements measurements were were taken taken within within six, six, 1-acre, I-acre, ungrazed ungrazed exclosures exclosures located located within within the the pastures. pastures. Mean Mean plant plant measurements, measurements, combined from all exclosures, were contrasted combined from exclosures, were contrasted with with each each comparable comparable pasture pasture mean mean measuremeasurement. ment. Scheffe's Scheffe's test test (Dixon (Dixon and and Massey Massey 1969) 1969) was used used to locate locate sources sources of significant significant differdifferences the 0.05 ences at the 0.05 level level of probability. probability. 0 a ro nttibutio n from Federal Conttibution Federal .<.\id Aid Project Project W-101-R. W-IOI-R. RESULTS RESULTS This This report report pertains pertains only only to differences differences found found between between pastures pastures for the the years years 1963 1963 and and 1964, 1964, near near the the close close of the the grazing grazing study. study. A major major �difference occurred between between 1963 1963 difference in precipitation precipitation occurred (3.01 inches) inches) and 1964 (7.42 (7.42 inches) inches) for the (3.01 and 1964 the period January January through through June. period June . Much greater greater growth occurred 1964 than than in 1963 1963 in all pasgrowth occurred in in 1964 tures and exclosures. exclosures. the large large tures In spite spite of the moisture difference, difference, vegetative vegetative response response to premoisture ceding, long-term long-term grazing grazing treatments, particuceding, treatments, particularly heavy grazing by livestock, livestock, were were quite larly heavy grazing quite evident. evident. Table 1. Average lengths of Indian Indian riceAverage leaf lengths Table 1. grass and and crown crown diameter tufted phlox phlox,, diameter of tufted grass 1963and 1964,by grazing treatment treatment a 1963 and 1964, by grazing ~:~:n Indian 19638 Grazing Treatmentt Cr a:dng Treatcien Phlox Low 'Phlox 196383 . 1964J 1964* 1961 Millimeters lilllia::e cer-s. Ricegrass Rice~;~ 1964B Millimeters HU.U..ctcts- Deer only ke r only 298 336 356 382 74 87 64 86 91 73 332 248 352 265 86 91 58 38 58 283 180 323 239 103 58 110 llO 302 271 27J 3374 74 357 7) 73 80 271 371 37l 67 a; 87 89 79 336 336 370 170 10] 103 114 Light Ught: 263 Moderate Moder ate Heavy Huavy 3()8 308 n Sheep only only She.e.p Moderate Moderate Heavy Heavy Indian Ricegrass Ricegrass Indian Heavy grazing grazing by cattle cattle reduced reduced Indian Indian riceHeavy grass vigor vigor significantly significantly more than heavy heavy grazgrass more than ing by sheep sheep or deer (Tables 1 and Moderate ing deer (Tables and 2). Moderate grazing by each three species, species, grazed the three grazing each of the singly, produced produced no significant significant differences. differences. Modsingly, erate grazing grazing by sheep sheep or cattle cattle only only resulted resulted in erate greater Indian Indian ricegrass ricegrass vigor vigor than heavy grazgreater than heavy sheep or cattle cattle only (Fig. 1) 1).. ing by sheep only (Fig. The presence in winter, of mule deer deer at The presence winter, mule moderate stockings in pastures grazed by sheep moderate stockings pastures grazed sheep ~· Cattle only Cattle onl;t Moderate Moderate Heavy Heavy 79 79 Dual use ~ Moderate sheep-deeree::r Moderate abeep-d Moderate cow-deer Modtit41til:' eo,.,-deer Variable cow-deer Va-i·i abl e. cO"W"-deer (unfenced) (unfenced) ~ Six combined combined for ricegrass, Sh: for -ric.eg-rass, 5 fo forr phlox phl ox Precipitation January-June inclusive (1963, 3.01"; ; 1964 1964, , 7.-4t'). 7.42"). Pncipitatfgo J4inu.&ey-June !Delusive (1963, 3.0l" -- ~.. ,',.. ',"" \..'", -:-- ~ Fig.!. 1. Indian Indian ricegrass vigor was significantly significantly greater greater under moderate grazing (left) by sheep sheep and and cattle cattle than Fig. ricegrass vigor under moderate grazing (left) than under under heavy grazing grazing (right). McKean and and R. M. M. Bartmann) Bartmann) heavy (right). (Photo (Photo by W. T. McKean �Table 2. 2. Comparisons Comparisons of Indian Indian ricegrass rice grass and and tufted phlox vigor vigor by treatment treatment and and year Table tufted phlox year a Stocking Rate Scoc-ktng R,1 t~ Deer only only Oeet Indian Ricegrass Leaf Ind tau Ric.i:gross t..ca! Length LA!ng th 1963 1964 1963 1%Z (Dry) (We t) (Dry) Campar isons Tufted Phlox 1963 (Dry) (Dry) Crown Diameter 1964 (Wet)) (Wee Ligh vy Lightt vs. vs . hea heavy Light V-5 . IT'l>dcr.otc moderate tlght vs. ModcrLl tC ~ ~. - heavy Hod~ro'tc heavy Sheep only on ly Sheep Moderate Cattle only only CatLtc Moderate ~. heavy Modern I:<? !!· heavy Dual use Oun t use (modera to.) (n.odoratc) Cow-deer Cowdeer vs. vs . sheep-deer -lhfJCp - d~ Deer vs vs. . cow-deer cow-deer Oct-r Deer VS. sheep-deer sheep-deer Deer~- vs. heavy Moderate sheep longer Moderate shocp longer Hoderate sheep longer Modct.acc shcj!p longer Moderate Modera cc te co1,1 cow looger longer Modcr:i cow longer Moderate wider Moderate sheep sheep ~ cow wider Moderatet e co¥o• cow -,,,,lde wider rModera Moderate c cow Moderoce owider w~ Moderate wider Modeca te cow ~ Moderate Sheep-deer longer Shccp • dcc'C lof\ger Hoderate deer longer longer Moclc't ilte: d~cr vs. Sheep Vs . she.cp sheep-deer Sheep -d,•er Cow :!!_~Cowvs~cow-deerdeer Cow Heavy Moderate Mode-ra ce Deer ~. COHS Ocer vt . cows Deer VS. vs. ~ht:?cp sheep De~r Heavy deer Cows ~. VS. sheep sheep Cows Heavy sheep sheep longer Hoi'lvy longe-r longer Heavy dt!e.r deer longer fl~ovy Longer Heavy deer longer ll~ovy deet: Longer Heavy cow wider wider UC!'avy c.ow Deer vs. COW~ cows 0 (!t! r VS• Deer ~ ~. . sheep sheep Deer Cows ~ vs.- sheep sheep CO\r,IS Combined exclosures vs. pas tures Combi ned exclosures vs . pasc:ures sheep)I1 ((heavy heovy shecp )2 (heavy (heavy cow) cow-deer) 3 (dual (doa I cowd~ec) (heavy) ) 4 (h,;avy sheep-deer) -deet) 5 (dual (dual sheep 6 ((moder.3te deer) mocleTa Ce deer) (light deer) 17 (light doer) 0.0\") 8 ((moderate mod et:a t e co'W) (moderate sheep) 9 (moduac:e sheep) Exclosure longer r5:x.cl,os1.1re lt:in&e Exclosure longere r Exc lo sure lcing Exclosure longer E,xclosu-re ~ Exclosure longer txclosu.r~ ~ Exclosure longer F.xcloSUl'"e- longer Exclosure E,. "'(closu-r~ longer tonger Exclosure wider 8:.iClosure wider Exclosure wider £>:: e losurt!'widcr Exclosure wider Exe Los.ure wi der Exclosure widerr SXclosur~ wlde Exclosure wider r £.."tclosu-re. wide Exclosure wider Ex.closure wid e?' Exclosure wider D:closu r l! wider Exclosure wider £:xclo.s!Jt"E! wi,der Exclosure wider r E>c.closure "Wide Exclosure b:c losur o longer longer 10 cow-deer LO ((moderate rooderac:e cQwdeier - unfenced) unfcncf:!d) Exclosure wider Ex closu r e ~ aScheffe's ' s te test$ L at at 0.0S 0.05 level of probability probability. nSchcUe level of . difference. bDash indicates no significant sigoiH.cnnt diffe-r ~nc: bDssh indicate!S and cattle in spring spring and fall did not not significantly significantly and cattle alter the the vigor Indian ricegrass. alter vigor of Indian ricegrass. Winter Winter grazing by deer deer alone alone under under light, moderate, and and light, moderate heavy rates rates produced produced no significant significant differences differences heavy pastures were were moderately moderately grazed by sheep, sheep, cattle, cattle, pastures or deer. deer. (Fig. (Fig. 2). Tufted Phlox Phlox Tufted degree of sheep sheep use use resulted resulted in lower lower Any degree tufted phlox phlox vigor vigor than cattle use tufted than corresponding corresponding cattle (Table 1) 1),, but but significantly significantly so only only in 1964 1964 (Table (Table (Table grazing, as opposed opposed to moderate moderate graz2). Heavy grazing, sheep and cattle depressing ing, by both both sheep cattle had a depressing effect on tufted tufted phlox vigor. effect phlox vigor. Indian 1icegrass rice grass vigor vigor within within exclosw-es exclosures was Indian significantly greater than than in heavily heavily stocked stocked significantly greater sheep and cattle cattle pastures. pastures. Vigor in exclosures sheep exclosw-es significantly exceeded exceeded that dual-use, also significantly that in the the dual-use, cow-deer pasture. pasture. Significant Significant differences differences did not not cow-deer occur between between pastures occur pastw·es and exclosures exclosures when when Fig. significant differences differences in grass grass vigor vigor were were found any deer deer pastures. pastures. Grnsses Grasses were abundant and and Fig. 2. Noo significant found between between any were abundant vigorous even on on less-favorable less-favorable soils soils by the the end the study. study. (:Photos (Photos by W. T. McKean and R. M. Bartmann) Hartmann) vigorous even end of the McKean and �As with with Indian Indian ricegrass, ricegrass, tufted tufted phlox phlox Vigor vigor was largely largely unaffected unaffected by any any degree degree of winter winter grazing grazing by deer. deer. 1n In exclosures, exclosures, tuJLed tufted phlox phlox vigor vigor was sigthan in nificantly nificantly greater greater than in heavily heavily stocked stocked sheep, sheep, cattle, cattle, and and deer deer pastures. pastures. Likewise, Likewise, vigor vigor in in exclosures closures exceeded exceeded that that in both both dual-use, dual-use, modermoderately-stocked ately-stocked pastures. pastures. No significant significant differences differences in phlox igor occurred phlox vvigor occurred between between pastures pastures and and exclosures exclosures when when the the pastw·es pastures were were grazed modmoderately erately by sheep, sheep, cattle cattle or deer deer alone. alone. MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS CONSIDERATIONS Under these these grazing-trial Under grazing-trial conditions, conditions, stockstocking ing rates rates should should not not exceed exceed 20 20 acres acres per per cow month month (1.5 cow days days/acre) and 3 acres acres per sheep sheep 1 acre) and month acre) in order mainmonth (10 (10 sheep sheep days; days/acre) order to maintain tain the the vigor vigor of herbaceous herbaceous plants. plants. Deer, present present only only when when herbaceous herbaceous vegetation vegetation was largely largely dormant dormant or unavailable, unavailable, did not not affect affect plant plant vigor vigor even even under under heavy heavy stocking stocking rates. rates. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks Thanks are are due due Richard Richard M. M. Bartmann Bartmann for major major assistance assistance in compilation compilation and and analysis analysis of data data for this this paper, paper, and and to Dr. David C. Bowden Bowden for supervision supervision of statistical statistical analysis. analysis. Donald Donald G. Smith, Smith, Harold Harold E. E. Burdick, Burdick, Bernard Bernard A. Goetze, Ronald Ronald E. E. Lambertson, Lambertson, and and Hugh Hugh Black, Black, Jr. Jr. assisted assisted in either either field measurements measurements or compilacompilation of annual-growth annual-growth data. data. Bertram Bertram D. Baker Baker and and Harold Harold M. M. Swope kindly kindly reviewed reviewed this this manumanuscript; script; Dr. Lee E. Yeager Yeager and and WilliamH. William H. RutherRutherford served served as editors. editors. LITERATURE LITERATURE ClTED CITED Dixon, W. W. J., J., and and F. J. Massey, Massey, Jr. Jr. 1969. 1969. IntroIntroduction duction to statistical statistical analysis. analysis. 3rd ed. McGrawHill Book, ., New Book Co Co., New York York.. 638 638 p. McKean, McKean, W W.. T. 1970. 1970. Fencing Fencing for mule mule deer. Colo. Div. Game, Game, Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Game Inform. Inform. Leafl. Leaf!. No. 81. 81. 2 p. ___ _ . 1971. rates 1971. Stocking Stocking rates for for mule mule deer deer and and livestock livestock on on certain certain pinon-juniper pinon-juniper areas. areas. Colo Colo.. Div. Game, Game, Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Game Inform. Leafl. Leaf!. No. No. 87. 87. 2 p. 1971. __ -,, and and R. M. M. Bartmann. Bartmann. 1971. Deer-liveDeer-livestock stock relations relations on a pi.non-juniper pinon-juniper range range in northwest northwest Colorado. Colorado. Final Final Rept. Colo. Div. Div. Game, Fish p. Fish and and Parks, Parks, Denver. Denver. July. July. 132 132p. (processed). (processed) . Nielson, Nielson, J. L. L. 1966. 1966. Soil survey survey of experimental experimental pastures pastures, , Little Little Hills Game Experiment Experiment Stati011. tion. U. S. Soil Conserv. Conserv. Serv. Servo Unpublished Unpublished Tept. rept. 42 42 p. (typewritten). (typewritten). William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher Researcher April, April, 1972 1972 �Outdoor Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED H E COLORADO PUBLISHED BY BY T THE COLORADO DEPARTMENT F NATURAL DEPARTMENT O OF NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES D IV IS ION O F GAME, DIVISION OF GAME, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS ' d ' I ~ 'c' ieflt Number Number 90 Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet STATUS STATUS OF MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN GOATS GOATS IN IN COLORADO COLORADO a As the the mountain mountain goat goat (Oreamnos (Oreamnos ame,icanus) americanus) evolved evolved in North North America, America, it became became a species species peculiarly peculiarly adapted adapted to a cold-climate cold-climate existence. existence. Its Mountain Its southward southward distribution distribution in in the the Rocky Rocky Mountain chain chain follows follows a pattern pattern of increasingly increasingly higher higher elevations. Habitat elevations. Habitat in the the coastal coastal ranges ranges of .\laska Alaska may may occur occur near near sea sea level; level; but, but, as the the animal British animal occurs occurs through through British Columbia Columbia and and into into Montana Montana and and Idabo, Idaho, its its lower lower altitudinal altitudinal limit (as (as influenced influenced by the the average average maximum maximum limit temperature temperature it can can tolerate) tolerate) continues continues to increase increase until, , at the the southern southern extremity extremity of its its native native until range, range, it does does not not occw· occur below below 6,500 feet feet elevaelevation. The The low-elevation low-elevation portions portions of the the ContiContition. nental DiYide Divide in in Wyoming Wyoming have have thus thus provided provided nental an effectiYe effective barrier barrier to further further southward southward mian gralion. gration. Parls Parts of the the central central and and southern southern sections sections the Rocky Rocky Mountains Mountains in in Colorado, Colorado, and and conconof the offer highceivably ceivably south south into into New ew Mexico, Mexico, offer highquality quality mountain mountain goat goat habitat habitat never never occupied occupied naturally of the Wyonaturally by these these animals animals because because of the Wyoming Here, ming barrier. barrier. Here, habitat habitat at elevations elevations of of 10,000 Utilization 10,000 feet feet and and above above is abundant. abundant. Utilization of these areas these more more southern southern high-mounllain high-mountain areas as mountain upon mountain goat goat habitat habitat is thus thus dependent dependent upon introducing animals animals from from native native range. range. introducing HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTS TRANSPLANTS During During the the 1940's the the State State of of Colorado, Colorado, through through its its then then Game Game and and Fish Fish Department, Department, made made the the decision decision to transplant transplant mountain mountain goats; goats; and were the State and arrangements arrangements were made made with with the State of of l\fontana bigMontana to furnish furnish goats goats in in exchange exchange for for bighorn horn sheep. sheep. The The first first transplant transplant was was on on May May 24, 1948. At that that time, time, nine nine goats goats (4 adult adult females, females, adult males, males, and and 3 kids) kids) were were released released on on 2 adult Mount end Mount Shavano Shavano at at the the southern southern end of of the the Fig. vans area. nick ) Fig. 1. 1. :\Ioumain :\[ountain goal goat in lypical typical l1abitat. habitat, 2'Iount Mount E Evans area. (Photo (Photo by Don Don Dome Domenick) '\ Contribution from from Federal Federal .\,\id Project \\' W-41-R id Project -U-R a, ("omdbution �Collegiate Range. Range. One adult male died a few Collegiate dull male after release, release, leaving leaving S 8 goats goats in the the original original days after transplant. goats were were received received from from transplant. Noo further l'urther goats Montana June 30, 30, 195U, 1950,when additional Montana until w1til June when six additional animals (2 adult adult fe females, adult male male,, and and 3 males , 1 adult animals kids) were obtained and released released on on Sheep kids) were obtained Sheep Mountain, about about 15 15 miles miles west Buena Vista west of Buena Mountain, and 15 15 miles miles north north of Mount Mount Shavano. Shavano. and In early early July July of 1961, 1961, 16 16 goats goats (7 adult adult In females, 6 adult adult males, males, and and 3 kids) received female kids) were were receh·ed from Idaho Idaho and and South South Dakota, Dakota, and and were were released released from on east side side of Mount Mount Evans Evans in the on the the east the upper upper Bear Creek Creek drainage. drainage. A young young adult adult male male died Bear shortly after after release release, leaving leaving 15 15 animals animals in the the Shortly group. group. 18 and and 25, 25, 1964, 1964, two groups groups of five June 18 On June goats each obtained from South South Dakola Dakota goats each were were obtained and released released on Cottonwood Cottonwood Creek, Creek, a tributary and tributary the Lake Lake Fork Fork of the Gunnison River, River, southsouthof the the Gunnison west total, these these groups groups conwest of Lake Lake City. In total sisted of 3 adult adult female females, , 3 yearling yearling females females, 3 sisted yearling males, adult male. male. Two of the the yearling male and and 1 adult adult females were later later found dead, leaving adult females were found dead, leaving eight goats goats at th.i this release release site. site. eight July, 1968 1968, five goats goats (2 adult adult female females, , 11 In July, yearling female female, 11 adult adult male, male, and and 11 yearling yearling yearling male)l were were obtained obtained from from South South Dakota Dakota and and male released on Black Creek in the Range, the Gore Range, released southwest of Kremmling. Kremmling. southwest 1970, four adult July 8 and and 9, 1970, four goats goats (2 adult On July females, 1 yearling yearling male, male kid) kid) were females, male, and and 1 male were received from British Columbia Columbia and and released released on on received from British Black Creek.. These These relea releases followed by Black Creek e were were followed adult female on August 1970, and and a twoan adult female on August 5, 1970, Lwoyear-old male male on June June 4, 1971, 1971, both British year-old both from British Columbia and both both released Creek. released on Black Creek. Columbia and The yearling yearling male male from the the 1970 1970 release release was The found dead, dead, leaving total of 10 10 transplanted transplanted found leaving a total goats at this site. goats this site. Finally, on June June 19, 19, 1971, 1971,four goats (1 adult adult fom goats Finally female, 2 yearling yearling females, females, and and 1 yearling yearling male) male) female, were received from Briti Britishh Columbia Columbia and and were were were received released at the the head head of Needle Needle Creek, Creek, in Chicago Chicago released Basin, in the the Needles Needles Mountains Mountains north north of Basin Durango. Dw·ango. and the Mount ShavanoShavano-Mount Tabeguache-Jones and lhe Mount ount Tabeguach e-Jones Peak-Mount Aetna area ha has an estimated estimated 125 125 Peak-Mounl etna area animals. . Approxunately Approximately 50 50 additional additional goats animal goat. are ,ire present iu in small small bands range on other bands that that range other present peaks, including including a few on Mount Mount Yale, the peaks, the northernmost area in which goats can consi consistent11orther nmo l area which goat tentCollegiate Range. It is ly be found found in the the Collegiate Range. probable that if interchange interchange occurs occurs among among the the probable that three main main group groups iL it is minimal, minimal, and that that the three U1e groups remain remain separate through most of the group eparale tbrough mo t o[ the year. year. Following a rapid rapid increa increasee in in population population size ize Following through the 1960's, the Collegiate Range goat goat through the 1960 ' , the Collegiate Range herd now appears appears to be approaching approaching a levelingherd levelingThe population trend is still still upward, but at at population trend upward but off. The a decreased decreased rate. rate. Nanny-kid ratios during during early early anny-kid ratios summer are consistently high, close to 100:100, summer are con istently high, lo 100:100, but ratios al'e are generally generally about about 100: 100: but kid-yearling kid-yearling raLios 50 in all bands bands that have been observed. . Some 50 chat have been observed ome mortality in the the kid-to-yearling kid-to-yearling age cla class iis to be mortality expected, so thesee ratio ratios are not not a cau causee for expected, o the concern. All bands bands appear exhibit a good good se. sexr appear to exhibit concern. and age-cla age-class slructw·e, structure, with and \\ iLh mature mature billies billies well \\'ell represented. repre ented. ,-" N 1 CURRENT STATUS CURRENT The cunenl current ((1972) status of goat goat herds herds exThe 1972) status isting in Colorado Colorado as a result result of these transthese transisting plants, including including distribution distribution, population population size plants, and trend, and general general sex-age sex-age composition, and trend, and composition, follows: follows: Fig. nange of n mountain goats, . Collegiate Collegiate Bange. Fig. 2. Hange ountai.11 goat Nange. (l\Iap (!\lap drafted by Lorraine Seger) draned l.onaine K. Sege1·i Collegiate Range Collegiate Range Mountain goats are are now distributed distributed through through Mountain goats the southern portion Range, the southern portion of the the Collegiate Collegiate Range, with total population 350 with total population size approximating approximating 350 animals. They They have animals. have become become eestablished tablished in three three general locations locations, , with smaller bands occupying general with smaller bands occupying fringe areas. areas. Sheep Sheep Mountain-Gladstone fringe Mountain-Gladstone Ridge Ridge has an estimated estimated 75 75 goats, goats, an estimated 100 an estimated 100 has occupy the the Mount Mount Princeton-Antero Princeton-Antero Peak Peak area, occupy area, Mount Evan Evans Mounl Distribution mountain goats goats on Mount Mount Distribution of mountain Evans is considerably considerably more more limited Evan limiled than U1an in the the Collegiate Range. Range. The is estimated estimated The population population size izeis Collegiate at about about 100 100, with only one one main main group group estabestabal with only lished. Most these goats goats are concentrated concentrated in ost of these lished. upper Bear Creek Creek in an an area area consi consisting rugged ting of rugged upper Bear outcroppings of granitic granitic rocks below timberline, timberline, outcroppings where three forest fires during during the where three separate eparate forest the past past .....,. <ri tn SI!:CONDARY 11!COND1UIY RANGE IRAHGE' en ..-.= ~ !=. sc .•.•.rO,. ••'Ll:s bel I.pn: NOH.. ~ ON Ill"' IolAPTtlE •••nl' illtt'll'tt:0 MOICO IKIT fN[ ."'AICO l"°All'II llh "'UNCIPAL MERIDIAN' NllloC:l'.U.. •Clll Ol,U(I RAE. R. 4E. R,6E. R.7E, �20 years have occmTed. occurred. This This habitat appears to 20 years have habitat appears offer all that animals require, require, with the result that the Che animals the 1·esult offer that them do not not spend spend time time in the that most most of them the alpine groups, or individuals, appear pine areas. areas. Small groups, individuals, appear Mount Rosalie Rosalie and the the Mount time in the from time time to time Mount Bierstadt-Guanella Bierstadt-Guanella Pass Pass ai·eas, areas, both alpine, Mount both alpine, but these goats appear appear to rejoin rejoin the main group group but these goats the main rather than than staying locations. rather staying in these these. locations. the Collegiate Collegiate Range, Range, goats goats in the the As in the Mount Evans Evans area area have have shown shown good reproduction reproduction Mount and a good good rate population increase increase. . The and rate of population The population still uniformly uniformly upward, upward, with population trend trend is still with observed nanny-kid nanny-kid ratios ratios during during the the summer summer of observed about 100:100.Detection deadabout 100:100. Detection of yearlings yearlings in the the deadtimber burned burned areas areas frequented frequented by the the goats goats is timber much more more difficult difficult than than in the the open open alpine alpine much areas of the Collegiate Range, Range, resulting resulting in ununareas tb e Collegiate reliable data data concerning proportion of yearyearthe proportion reliable concerning the lings in the Mature billies reprethe herd. herd. Mature billi,es are well reprelings sented, the sex-age sex-age class structure structure appears appears sented, and the to be excellent. excellent. NATIONAL uj ... "" the animals had traveled traveled from Cottonwood Cottonwood Creek the animals this new location location and bad had become established. become established. to tbis The group group consisted consisted of adult male, male, 2 adult adult The or 1 adult females, 1 yearling, yearling, and basis of and 2 kids. On the the basis females the presence goats, the Needles Mounthe presence of these these goats, the Needles tains recommended for further transplants. . further transplants tains were were recommended Thus, the four animals animals released 19, 1971, 1971, Thus, the four released on June June 19, were intended to supplement supplement a small small nucleus nucleus were intended herd already present. herd already present. There can be no question that goats goats are There question that established and reproducing reproducing Needles established and in the the Needles Mountains. The herd herd is so small, small, and Mountains. and the the area area that very very little little is known known about about curso rugged, rugged, that current herd herd size, kid survival, survival, population population growth growth, , rent and sex-age sex-age composition. If the pattern is reand composition . If the pattern peated, it will be several several more more years years before before the tbe peated, herd becomes becomes large enough to exhibit exhibit a typical herd large enough typical population structure. A wait-and-see wait-and-see approach, approach, population structure. with additional transplanting if stock stock becomes becomes additior).al tqmsplanting with available, is all that done concerning concerning that can be done available, population There are are some some recent recent indicastatus. There indicapopulation status. tions Mountains herd not that the the Needles Needles Mountains heTd does not tions that contain goats cun-ently currently existing existing in the the contain all of the Lhe goats Juan Range Range.. It remains remains to be seen seen whether San Juan whether the animals animals that that appear appear to be scattered any of the scattered elsewhere sufficient winter range to elsewhere will find sufficient winter range enable estalishment as nuclei nuclei for separate separate herds. herds. enable estalishm.ent II ,I (f) "' \ RIO GRANDE ,~ATIONA~ • I Z I r ~ I , ,..: ""=-----'-~ . ~---.c- /1 ••• __..,..-FOREST J/w,u,OMA..,,., i-: ' ' -;e. · ~ ···• 1,.,.. 1 J A \ I I ... I uj ._ID PRIMARY WINTER-SUMMER.;/ ". f'.... .••••••• RANGE SCAI.,E 0,. 1,C&J..1 OP " ~_ I WI LIE' w1u, ~ SECONDARY SECONDARY NATIONAt FOREST _,___PPIKE _IK _ E_N AT I ON At FOREST ................ ' RANGE RANGE I R.74W. R.74W , R. 73 W. R.73W, R.72 W. R.72W, Fig. 3. Range mountain goats goats, , Mount Mount Evans. Evans. (Map Fig. Range of mountain drafted by Seger) IC Seger) drafted by Lorraine Lorrnine K. Needles Mountains Mountains Needles For about years following following the 1964 1964 reFor about four four years lease southwest of Lake Lake City, the lease of goats goats southwest the transtransplant considered a failure. trace of the the plant was considered failure. No trace animals could could be found, assumed that that animals found, and it was assumed all had had succumbed. succumbed. In In 1968, 1968, a hiker hiker reported reported an ear-tagged goat goat found found dead in a snowslide snowslide in the ear-tagged the Needles Mountains, about about 25 airline miles miles south south Needles Mountains, 25 airline of the original release release site. Finally, Finally, in Febmary, February, the original 1969, two Game, Fish Fish and Parks obser1969, Parks Division Division obserhelicopter spotted spotted six goats goats u1 in Chicago Chicago ers in a helicopter Basin in the Needles Mountains, Mountains, confirming confirming that th e Needles that Basin z ! RANGE i-: SECONDARY ,..., I WINTER-SUMMER a:, I ..... •••. RANGE •••-••• R. 7 W. R.7W. IIILl!I ; .,,/ • - ic',c-,,li:::==::j,c,,c,Ka,i R6W. R.6W. Fig. mountain goats. goats, Needles f ,ig. 4. Range Range of mountain Needles Mountains. Mountains. (Map Lorraine K. Seger) I< . Seger) ( Map drafted drafted by by Lorraine Range Gore Range Range was selected transplant The Gore Range selected as a transplant site partly partly on the the basis basis of the the migration migration of two site adult male goats goats into into the the area about 1966. 1966.These adult area about These wanderers could could have the Colwanderers have come from either either the legiate Range Range or the the Mount Evans herds; herds; but but Mount Evans legiate �the the fact that that they they remained remained in in the the Gore Range Range inclicated indicated that that the the habitat habitat was suitable. suitable. The The transplants transplants of of 1968, 1968, 1970, 1970, and and 1971, 1971, totaling totaling 10 10 animals, animals, were were made made in an eftort effort to to establish establish a goat goat herd herd here. here. Follow-up Follow-up observations observations indicate indicate that that the the goats goats are are remaining remaining in in the the general general rerelease at reproduction lease area area and and th that reproduction has has occurred. occurred. Beyond Beyond this, this, no information information on population population status status is available. available. N I R,81W, R.BI W. R.BOW. R. 80W. R.79W. R.79W. f.ig fig. . 5. llange Hange or of mountuin mountain goats. goats, Core Core Hangc. l{ange. drafted b~· by J.01•r;1 J .orraine Seger drnllcd ine K. Sc genI (l\'1ap (Map GENERAL CONCLUSIONS GENERALCONCLU~ONS Thus Thus faT, far, no seasonal seasonal altitudinal altitudinal differences differences have have been been detected detected in in the the :.-u-eas areas occupied occupied by goats. place limitagoats. Snow conditions, conditions, of course, course, place limitations tions on the the amount amount and and location location of actual actual range range tbat but there there seems that can can be utilized utilized in in winter, winter, but seems to be no tendency tendency on on the the part part of the the animals animals to seek their seek winter winter rainge range at at elevations elevations lower lower than than their usual haunts . Rather, usual summex summer haunts. Rather, their their winter winter movemovements become restricted ments simply simply become restricted Lo to wind-swept wind-swept ridgetops ridge tops and and southsouth- or southwest-facing southwest-facing slopes slopes that Lo hinder that do not not retain retain enough enough snow snow cover cover to hinder for aging acti vtty. foraging activity. In summary, mountain goat summary, the the mountain goat is now fi1mly firmly established established and and can be considered considered a perpermanen It is expected manent l pa.rt part o,f of Colorado Colorado's·s fauna. fauna. It expected that that lhe the population population will continue continue to expand, expand, bolh both in in numbers numbers and and in area area occupied, occupied, through through the processes processes of natural natural herd herd increment increment and and "pioneering'' habit,tt. "pioneering" :migrations migrations into into unoccupied unoccupied habitat. Its been Its potential potential as a game game animal animal has has scarcely scarcely been appreciated the limited appreciated during during the limited hunting hunting seasons seasons held in the bul the lhe nw11ber the p;ast, past, but number of applicants applicants high degree Jor for the the limited limited permits permits indicates indicates a high degree of interest interest by by Colorado Colorado sportsmen. sportsmen. Under Under pro• progressive there is every Lo gressive management, management, there every reason reason to believe that that rno1,.mtai11 mountain goats goats will provide greater greater be1ie\'e will provide recreational opportunity opportunity for for a greater greater number number recrealional citizens in the the years years Lo to come. come. of citizens William H. Rutherford William Rutherford Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher i\pril, April, 1972 1972 �3 1799 00014 9674 P U B L I S H E D BY T H E C O L O R A D O D E P A R T M E N T OF N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S D I V I S I O N OF W I L D L I F E Game Information Leaflet Number 91 GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION OF MOUNTAIN GOAT TRANSPLANT SITES IN COLORADO The high mountain country of Colorado contains an abundance of potential habitat for the mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus). T h e fact that the non-native mountain goat could be a desirable big game mammal in the state was recognized m o r e than 25 years ago, and has led to the successful establishment of the species through introductions. Since about 1950, general Fig. 1. Mount Eolus, at the head of Chicago Basin in the Needles Mountains. This is the general location where goats were first found in the Needles Mountains, and where a transplant was made in 1971. (Photo by W. H. Rutherford) Contribution from Federal Aid Project W-41-R experience with introductions of exotic species in the United States has indicated that potential habitat for any proposed plant should be examined in a most critical manner. Because most of the potential goat habitat in Colorado remains unoccupied, and because of considerable interest o n the part of various individuals and citizen groups toward increasing the distribution and abundance of goats, the Division of Game, Fish and Parks was faced with the necessity for developing standards, not only of physical site evaluation but philosophical as well, f o r transplanting the species. This paper deals with the d e v e l o p m e n t of such standards and offers guidelines for proposed goat transplants in the state. PHILOSOPHY OF GOAT TRANSPLANTING T h e basic position of the purist w h o contends that " f o r e i g n " species should not be introduced is already untenable. In any event, the goats are here, and firmly established in Colorado. The main o b j e c t i o n to the introduction of exotics, whether purposeful or accidental, is that they frequently invade or take over an ecological niche already occupied by a native species, to the detriment of that species. Gordon (1967) discussed this problem with respect to the Barbary sheep; and d e V o s et al. (1956), and Craighead and Dasmann (1965), discussed it with respect to exotics in general. In Colorado, the effect of non-native rainbow and brook trout introduction on the native cutthroat trout is history — in great measure, usurping the habitat of the native species. It is k n o w n that the habitats of mountain goats and bighorn sheep are so similar that they can be said to be identical, and it is also k n o w n that bighorns n o w appear only infrequently, if at all, in those areas occupied by goats; but the intricacies of the relationship between these two species are so imperfectly understood that they cannot be assessed as to what happened as a result of previous goat transplants. One can only say that, of all wild bighorn competitors, the �mountain goat, given the opportunity, is likely to be the most competitive. Mindful of these considerations, the Division has no alternative but to adopt a conservative approach toward mountain goat transplanting. Any proposal for introducing goats into a specific area must be evaluated in terms of possible, but unknown, effects upon indigenous bighorn populations. In practice, this emphasizes that goats should not be released in any habitat where bighorns exist, or where bighorn introductions may be expected to be successful. The last consideration might seem to be an argument against any further goat transplanting for, on the surface, it may imply that any area proposed for goats should instead be used to expand bighorn sheep. Such is not necessarily true. If the criterion, " m a y be expected to be successf u l , " is applied to proposals for bighorn transplants, it is immediately apparent that some historic bighorn range is no longer suitable for bighorns. Human encroachment, conversion of former bighorn winter range to other uses, highway building and general habitat alteration have insured that re-introduction of bighorns into some of these historic areas will not be successful. limits appear to be wider than those of bighorn sheep. Thus, it appears that Colorado does have potential mountain goat habitat, where goat introductions could be made without fear of conflict with bighorn sheep populations. If such areas are written off as potential bighorn sites, attempts to use them for expansion of goat populations may be the wisest course of action. Should goats become established in any of these places a gain will have been realized; should the transplant be a failure the only loss incurred would be the investment in transplant stock. It should be remembered, too, that mountain goats may thrive on at least some ranges inhospitable, or even intolerable, to bighorn sheep. Identifying such ranges and stocking them with goats would apparently insure a choice big game trophy species on more of the alpine and subalpine range in Colorado. To a great extent, the validity of this thinking hinges on a supposed characteristic of goats: namely, that they will stay where put. The fact that they cannot be depended on to do so in all cases places further restrictions on the selection of transplant sites. Types of terrain that serve as barriers to wide goat movements are not known, nor is it known what degree of habitat isolation is necessary to prevent dispersion. The goats which appeared in the Gore Range in 1966 could have come from either Mount Evans or the Collegiate Range; in either case, their travel necessitated crossing major stream valleys and highways. In this instance, the topographic features encountered were not barriers. To what extent such pioneering migrations will occur in the future is unknown, but it is predicted that goats will appear with increasing frequency in Colorado mountain areas now devoid of them. It may be that only very extensive areas of inhospitable terrain will serve as barriers, and the Fig. 2. Goats were transported to the Chicago Basin transplant site in crates suspended from a helicopter on June 19, 1971. (Photo by Harold E. Burdick) Generally, habitats of mountain goats and bighorn sheep are the same, but their winter range requirements have subtle d i f f e r e n c e s . Sheep, wherever possible, do seek out winter range at lower elevations, but continue to exhibit very narrow tolerance limits on what is acceptable. This characteristic is largely responsible for the great degree to which human encroachment has influenced bighorn herds. Thus far, goats in Colorado have not particularly sought out winter range removed from summer range, but seem able to subsist wherever snow conditions allow foraging in winter. Their tolerance Fig. 3. A mountain goat after release from the carrying crate, Chicago Basin, Needles Mountains, June 19, 1971. (Photo by Harold E. Burdick) �fact that goats are n o w present in Colorado means that m u c h of the high mountain country will eventually be occupied regardless of transp a n t i n g programs. PHYSICAL SITE EVALUATION All field work involved in the actual evaluation of proposed transplant sites must be d o n e in close cooperation with the land management agency responsible. In nearly all cases this agency is the U. S. Forest Service. Within the philosophical limitations set forth in the preceding section, proposed goat transplant s i t e s m u s t still m e e t c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l criteria. The features of terrain that were c o n sidered by Hibbs et al. (1969) as ideal goat habitat have been corroborated by follow-up studies, s h o w i n g that a combination of e x p o s e d , windswept, alpine terrain above timberline, sheer rock outcroppings and talus slides interspersed with steep grassy slopes, and precipitous cliffs on southern exposures are absolutely necessary. Alpine tundra areas without r o u g h topographical Features in juxtaposition are little used by goats, and then only as travel routes. The r o u g h , precipitous cliff type is also necessary as a feature of subalpine habitat, such as that preferred by goats in the Mount Evans area. Hibbs (1967) f o u n d that grasses and grasslike plants c o m p o s e the greater part of the diet of goats through the year, again corroborated by more recent follow-up observations. Thus, alpine areas in general o f f e r the type of forage that goats prefer, and vegetative species c o m p o sition is not a particularly critical item of consideration in r e c o m m e n d i n g transplant sites in alpine situations. If subalpine areas are to be at all a t t r a c t i v e to goats, there must be correct juxtapositioning of grazing areas with rocks and cliffs. This combination exists in the upper Bear Creek area on the east side of Mount Evans as a result of forest fires in a particularly rocky and rugged location. Without the fires, followed by the grass-forb plant succession n o w present, this area would be uninhabitable f o r goats in spite of the favorable topography. With proper kinds and interspersion of terrain and vegetation, probably the most important localized feature of g o o d mountain goat habitat is snow-free winter range. This is not critical in most of the Front Range area of Colorado, since this is not deep snow country. There appears to be an abundance of wind-blown ridge tops above timberline, and stream drainages are generally oriented to provide a m a x i m u m amount of south-facing exposure. H o w e v e r , in the heavy snowfall areas of western Colorado, and particularly in the San Juan Mountains, suitable winter range may be only a small fraction of the total range available to goats. Persistent s n o w cover will limit, to a greater degree than any other site characteristic, the expansion of goat populations in these mountains. Aerial reconnaissance in late winter (late February and March), w h e n snow depth and coverage are likely to be maximum, will provide information on this habitat feature. Generally, any proposed site that does not show a few snow-free vegetated areas (not bare rock) of at least 100 c o n t i g u o u s acres s h o u l d be rejected. Domestic sheep use of alpine areas proposed as goat release sites should be cause for immediate rejection. It is u n l i k e l y that the U. S. Forest Service w o u l d approve a transplant in any area having a grazing use permit; therefore, this problem can be resolved b e f o r e the site evaluation b e c o m e s a serious consideration. Finally, the possible conflict of human influence must be considered in evaluating potential goat transplant sites. Unfortunately, definite standards for the degree of human activity that goats will tolerate are almost non-existent, as it varies so widely f r o m o n e area to another. There has been no opportunity to observe goat reactions to humans in e n o u g h different situations to set d o w n definite guidelines. There is evidence suggesting that backpackers and hikers forced goats out of Needle Creek into m o r e rem o t e locations in the Needles Mountains during summer; yet goats can be observed in the cliffs overlooking C o t t o n w o o d Lake in the Collegiate Range at all seasons of the year. This particular spot is s u b j e c t e d to heavy, s u m m e r h u m a n density and recreational use. In the absence of specific standards for predicting what effect human activity will have on the success of any goat introduction, it must suffice to say that it should be considered in the evaluation. It w o u l d probably be unwise to r e l e a s e goats in the immediate vicinity of a developed ski area, for example, but it is impossible to draw a line between what is and is not a g o o d transplant site with regard to the h u m a n factor. If stringent standards o n terrain, i n t e r s p e r s i o n of cliffs and g r a z i n g areas, and available winter range are met, ordinary human a c t i v i t y will p r o b a b l y be of only m i n o r importance. �LITERATURE Craighead, F. C., and R. R. D a s m a n n . 1965. Exotic big game o n public lands. Proc., 25th Annual Nat'l. A d v i s o r y Council (BLM). Appendix No. 10. 13 p. deVos, A . , R. H. Manville, and R. G. Van Gelder. 1956. Introduced m a m m a l s and their influence o n native biota. Z o o l o g i c a 41(4): 163-194. Gordon, D. F. 1967. The Barbary sheep. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Inform. Leafl. No. 51. 3 p. CITED Hibbs, L. D. 1967. F o o d habits of the mountain goat in Colorado. Jour. Mamm. 48(2):242-248. , F. A . Glover, and D. L. Gilbert. 1969. The mountain goat in Colorado. Trans. N. A m . Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf., 34:409-418. William H. Rutherford Wildlife Researcher April, 1972 Reprinted April, 1979 �Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED OLORADO PUBLISHED BY THE THE C COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OOFF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION ND PARKS DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME, FISH FISH A AND PARKS Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet J · d ,Jt:-r ' ~ 1ef;ft ·- -Number Number 92 STATUS STATUS OF OF TRANSPLANTED TRANSPLANTED BIGHORN BIGHORN SHEEP SHEEP IN COLORADO a HISTORY HISTORY The early early trappers trappers and mountain mountain men, men, and and The later later the the prospectors, prospectors, found found bighorn bighorn sheep sheep (Ovis (Ovis canadensis canadensis canadensis) canadensis) throughout throughout the the foothills foothills and mountains mountains and and at times times even even out out on the the plains. plains. At a very early early stage stage in the the history history of the the white white man man in what what is now Colorado, Colorado, the the effects effects of human human disturbance disturbance upon upon bighorns bighorns were were evident. evident. Extirpation Extirpation from much much of their their original original range range and forcing forcing of remaining remaining animals animals into into more more marginal, marginal, high-mountain high-mountain habitat habitat began began in the the 19th Century Century and and has has continued continued to the the present present time. time. Today's Today's diminished diminished herds, herds, often often on restricted restricted range, range, is the the result. result. By the the 1940's, 1940's, many many bighorn bighorn herds herds in Colorado rado were were much much reduced reduced from from their their former former size, and others others had had passed passed out out of existence. existence. The famous famous Tarryall Tarryall herd, herd, however, however, maintained maintained high high numbers numbers in spite spite of human human encroachment. encroachment. Thus, Thus, ideal ideal conditions conditions existed existed for restoration restoration of big- Fig. Fig. 1. 1. A small small band band of rams rams on on winter winter range range in the the Saguache Creek Creek - n;ckle Trickle Mountain Mountain area. area. This This herd herd Saguache originated entirely entirely from from transplanted transplanted sstock, and has has originated to<.:k, and become become Colorado's Colorado's most most successful successful bighorn bighorn transtransplanting Photo by W .I-I. Rutherford) planting accomplishment. accomplishment. ((Photo W.E. Rutherford) a Contribution Contribution from from Federal Federal .\id Aid Project Project \\'-,ll-R W-41-R horn horn sheep sheep via the the classic classic trapping trapping and and transtransplanting Herds planting method: method: Herds which which needed needed to be supplemented, where supplemented, formerly formerly occupied occupied areas areas where herds herds could could be re-established, re-established, and and a large large herd herd which ction in the which needed needed redu reduction the interest interest of herd herd health. health. In September, September, 1944, 1944, the the then then Colorado Colorado Game Game and and Fish Fish Department Department initiated initiated a project project under under the the Federal !,'ederal Aid Aid in Wildlife Restoration Restoration Act for for trapping trapping and and transplanting transplanting bighorn bighorn sheep. sheep. From From 1944 1944 to to 1952, 1952, 202 202 bighorns bighorns were were trapped trapped out out of the the Tarryall Tarryall herd herd and and transplanted transplanted to other other locations were tions in Colorado. Colorado. In addition, addition, 16 16 bighorns bighorns were trapped trapped and and shipped shipped to Montana Montana in exchange exchange for mountain mountain goats. goats. In 1969-70, 1969-70, six sheep sheep from from the transthe Pikes Pikes Peak Peak herd herd were were trapped trapped and and transplanted. planted. The herd The catastrophic catastrophic die-off die-off in in the the Tarryall Tarryall herd during the winter winter of 1952-53, 1952-53, leaving leaving only only about about during 25 the 25 surviving surviving sheep, sheep, put put an abrupt abrupt end end to the trapping and transplanting transplanting program program since since there there trapping were transwere no other other suitable suitable herds herds from which which transplant plant stock stock could could be obtained. obtained. No further further bighorn trapping trapping was undertaken undertaken until until 1969, 1969, when when horn seven seven animals animals were were captured captured from from the the Pikes Pikes Peak herd herd and and donated donated to the the Denver Denver Zoo. The The Peak year year following, following, an additional additional six sheep sheep were were taken taken from from Pikes Pikes Peak Peak and and released released on on the the Lake Lake Fork Blue Mesa Fork of the the Gunnison Gunnison River, River, south south of Blue Reservoir, Reservoir, near near Sapinero. Sapinero. Table Table 11 lists lists all Colorado transplants transplants by year, year, nwnber number of sheep, sheep, and and rado release release site. site. This of historic historic This paper paper is a compilation compilation records and information information on the the current current (1972) (1972) records status status of bighorn bighorn sheep sheep herds herds now existing existing in in these main main transplant transplant areas, areas, provided provided for for the these the most part part by wildlife wildlife conservation conservation officers officers and and most regional regional game game biologists; biologists; and more more particularly particularly G. W. W. Jones, Jones, who was in charge charge of the by Mr. G. the Tarryall trapping trapping and and transplanting. transplanting. It It must must be Tarryall emphasized that that the the following following discussion discussion conemphasized cerns cerns only only those those herds herds that that were were supplemented supplemented or established established by transplanting. transplanting. Many Many other other bighorn horn herds herds in in the the state state have have not not been been thus thus ininfluenced, fluenced, and consequently consequently are not not considered considered here. here. �Table 1. 1. Bighorn sheep trapping trapping and and transplantTable Bighorn sheep transplanting Colorado, 1944-1970 1944-1970a ing in Colorado, Year rea:c: 1944-46 l.94'1&"-fi 1946-47 1946 -<7 1947-48 1947-46 Transplanted to Tt-. 11 a:!1ple.atcd eo i.Om.5 R.'" Geneva Gr,11!1!k. Creek (Mt. ,. Evang)b Gtl.tli!.t.t.a Ott E~')b Sangre de. de er Cristo s,~g:ie l a~ Range ILaQlt' c Mesa Park ttl!.H Verde 9ud a- National 1t11tJonJL Pnl,c-c. Creek (Mt (Mt. r z-,.1t15)b Evans)b cr-1,c1;c, Glenwood ~nyonC Gll!!oi.l'~CJd ~DY~C- Gore &ll'f!e. Range c.~e d Rifle Hogback l:t.£1.t: Hogb11 el; bb Ewe, GeorgetOlO'n ~llltOWU Brush creek Creek (e.1 (Eagle)d lkuah le)d. 1950-51 l.9.Sfl-.51 Saguache Creekb S.,g_u.acbl!! Cr@etb "0 " j ' n• 0 • I • 11 14 1• 14 ,. l ] 3) 33 1• 16 11 0 l6 5 g 6 8 0 • ' 0 ' 0 0 5 17 17 ' 0 7 17 IJ 0 15 '-' • b 1951-52 u,51 . ;2. Ladore Canyon Lador" Cru1:,::,r, Tarryall die·off of Q'!lpplag trapping and t.r.ansplanung.) transplanting) t4rtyt,ll d.looll ((end ~fld o! at1d 1969-70 I.969-10 Saplnero (Blue Miu Mesa Re Res.) Siph!Rl1 (.Slue: •. ) 12 12 3. ~ 11. ll6 15 L5 0 ., 47 herd increased about 50 animals in 1960 1960 and herd increased to about 50 animals and has since since been The transhas been declining declining in numbers. numbers . The transplant can can be considered marginally successsuccessplant considered only only marginally ful. At the present time, time, the the National the present National Park Park Servaccount for about about 25 25 animals, animals, found found ice can account generally near near the eastern edge of the the Park, generally the eastern Park, on both sides of the the vicinity vicinity of the boundary, boundary , in the both sides Webber Mountain. Mountain. Webber 14 14 1 1952-53 1952-SJ Totals TauL• during during the the mid-1940's. In In the the ensuing ensuing years years the the Total 'D:>ta!. 20 20 a 1948-49 l946-"9 1949-50 19'9-50 Number Released Lamb, Yearling6 7 b l;i:tdq~t,CM'lb Georgetown b Cache la Poudre ~i,;~ti River Cle.ha h1 f,01,1,du Rampar t lUlnlil,11~ Range C !!,.iiq,ad Geneva Ge.J1ie¥t1 'i.a,,,S, ..... ~-r-Ult!Ht-d te.a'l"lt.n&• ancient Indian ruins. However, ancient Indian ruins. However, no bighorns bighorns occupied the area area until the transplant transplant of 14 14 animals animals cupied until the 208 006 SAll ttappiAt, trapping through 1952 "-•Ii was CJD on the Tan-yall trapping in on •All t:l:rr'ou&b t.95:! ~c h ~ U Range; Rmr.-.:r Crapp~ in 1969-70. 1969"•70 was if•a. on Pikes only •1% six shup. sheep_ Pl.li;u Peak. f•UIC, involved lQIIOl'f'ed C"D1J" b Successful ~rginally successful ~8in.al.l\. )' .!U.t!CH,!lful dUnsucce9sful <lvn•t.1C"i:.G-■ 1£ul RELEASE SITES RELEASE Geneva Geneva Creek This was the release site site for two separate separate This the release transplants, totaling totaling 16 16 animals, animals, supplementing supplementing transplants, the Mount herd. Even Even in in the late 1940's, the Mount Evans Evans herd. the late the herd herd had had been been in static static or declining status the declining status many years. years. After After the transplant, through through for many the transplant, the 1950's and and continuing continuing until the 1950's until about about 1965, 1965, the the Mount Evans Evans herd vigorous, healthy Mount herd was vigorous, healthy and and growing, ultimately reaching reaching about about 200 200 animals. animals. growing, ultimately Its distribution is the entire Mount Its distribution the entire Mount Evans Evans complex, including including Mount Mount Bierstadt Bierstadt and Mount plex, and Mount Rosalie. 1965,however, herd has has leveled Rosalie. Since 1965, however, the the herd leveled 150-175 sheep, sheep, and the the age-class age-class off at about about 150-175 structure has has changed changed somewhat somewhat to a higher higher prostructure portion older animals. animals. At the present time, time, the present portion of older considered to be static, static, with with lamb survival lamb survival it is considered enough level level to maintain stability but but at a high high enough maintain stability not growth. not growth. Sange de Cristo Range Sange Cristo Range This transplant transplant also supplemented supplemented an eldstexistThis ing, but declining, declining, herd. herd. During During the late 1940's 1940's the late ing, but and the following the the transplant, transplant, the the herd herd and the 1950's, following exhibited good good reproductive exhibited reproductive vigor vigor and and growth growth until the early 1960's. Its Its distribution distribution is generally generally until the early 1960's. the area lying lying between between Medano Medano Pass Pass on the the area the south and Horn Peak Peak on the the north. north. Since the south and Horn the severe decline, decline, due due to mid-1960's, it it has has been been in severe nearly complete lack of lamb survival. survival. Presently, Presently, nearly complete numbers about about 40 40 sheep, sheep, and composed of it numbers and is composed an excessively excessively high high percentage percentage of old animals. animals. Verde National National Park Mesa Verde Park This area is historic historic range range for one one of the This area the sub-species of bighorn indicated in the sub-species bighorn sheep, sheep, as indicated the bones and and petroglyphs petro glyphs associated associated with with form of bones Georgetown Georgetown Again, this this transplant supplemented an an existexistAgain, transplant supplemented ing, but declining, pattern ing, but declining, herd; herd; and, and, again, again, the the pattern growth for about about of reproductive reproductive vigor vigor and and good growth 15 years, years, followed followed by another decline, was ex15 another decline, hibited. In this herd, the the recent decline from hibited. this herd, recent decline over 100 animals present animals in the the mid-1950's to the the present over 100 herd 35 must must be attributed attributed to the herd of about about 35 the combined effects of increased human harassment, harassment, bined effects increased human four-lane construction, and continually four-lane highway highway construction, and continually decreasing quality quality and quantity of winter winter range. and quantity range . decreasing The distribution distribution is generally area lying lying beThe generally the the area between U. S. Highways Highways 6 (l-70) (1-70) and 40 from their and 40 their tween junction Continental Divide, north of junction to the the Continental Divide, and and north Highway 40 the James James Peak Peak area. area. Annual Annual 40 to the Highway increment at the the present seems adequate increment present time time seems adequate to maintain maintain the the existing herd size and age-class existing herd and age-class structure, but but the long-term outlook this structure, the long-term outlook for this herd is continµed continued decline, decline, in adjustment adjustment to curherd rent winter range range quality quality and and quantity. quantity. rent winter Cache la Poudre Cache Poudre It Poudre Canyon It is likely likely that that the the Poudre Canyon was historic bighorn range, range, but sheep were known but no sheep were known toric bighorn to have have been present since since some the 19th been present some time time in the Century. Thus, Thus, the the winter the transplant transplant in the Winter of Century. 1946-47was essentially an introduction introduction into 1946-47 was essentially into new new range. The herd has has experienced range. The herd experienced a general general but but not rapid increase in size since since the the transplant, transplant, not rapid increase and appears to be healthy with a good age-elass and appears healthy with age-class structure. The The number number is estimated estimated at about structure. about 75. Distribution is generally on the generally on the north north side side of Distribution the mouth of the South the canyon canyon from from the the mouth the Big South Fork downstream downstream to Rustic, Rustic, and Fork and north north from the the the rim rim into into Nunn Nunn Creek Creek Basin. top of the Basin. Rampart Range Range Rampart This originated from a transplant transplant at This herd herd originated at Green Falls intended supplement Green Mountain Mountain Falls intended to supplement the Pikes herd. The The release release location the Pikes Peak Peak herd. location was not chosen, and and the sheep drifted drifted north north to not well chosen, the sheep the Rampart Rampart Range. Range. This area area is probably probably hishisthe toric bighom bighorn range, but none none were known to toric range, but were known have been present before the transplant. transplant. The have been present before the The herd increased to about about 60 60 or 70 70 animals animals in 1958, 1958, herd increased then present estimated estimated size of then declined declined to the the present about the areas about 20. 20. Distribution Distribution is in the areas immediately immediately south and west of the south and west the Air Force Force Academy. Academy. At present, still in a period period of decline, decline, the herd herd is still present, the �survival is poor, poor, and most most of the herd herd lamb survival members are old animals. animals. members Glenwood Glenwood Canyon Canyon Historically, Historically, Glenwood Glenwood Canyon Canyon was probably probably part part of the the general general range range inhabited inhabited by bighorn bighorn sheep on the the north north side of the the Colorado Colorado River. River. sheep The transplant transplant in the the winter winter of 1947-48 1947-48was The was a reintroduction, introduction, as an existing existing herd herd was no longer longer present present at that that time. The The herd herd increased increased to about about 40 40 animals animals in 1960, 1960, and and then then declined declined rapidly. rapidly. Only nine nine could could be accounted accounted for in in 1969, 1969, and and tbese these were semi-tame, semi-tame, spending spending most most of their their time time in the the orchard orchard at the mouth mouth of Grizzly Creek Creek where where they they were were ext.emely extremely vulnervulnerable able to traffic traffic on U. S. Highway Highway 6. 6. In In fact, traffic traffic mortality mortality seems seems to have have been been a considerable considerable factor factor in their their decline, decline, although although disease disease was also involved. In In the winter winter of 1970-71, 1970-71, five sheep sheep involved. were were removed removed and were were taken taken to Piceance Piceance Creek Creek southwest southwest of Meeker. At the the present present time, time, there there may be a ssmall mall band band (10 (10 or 12) 12) of wilder wilder sheep sheep in the the 1imrocks rimrocks above the canyon, canyon, and and 3 or 4 that that still frequent frequent the the Grizzly Grizzly Creek area. area. Gore Range Range The transplant transplant at this this location location numbered numbered only seven seven animals, animals, and probably probably had had no noticenoticeable effect on the the population population structure structure of the the existing herd. herd. The Gore Range Range herd herd has never never existing been been particularly particularly large, large, but but during during the the 1950's 1950's it it did exhibit exhibit good vigor vigor and and a good age-class age-class structure. In recent recent years years it has has declined, declined, and and structure. cunently currently appears appears to be composed composed of a high high percentage centage of older older animals. animals. It numbers numbers about about 40 40 individuals, distributed distributed generally generally from from the the Gore individuals, Creek Creek area area on the south south to Eagles Eagles Nest Peak Peak on the north. north. the Ritle Rifle Hogback Hogback A A small small herd herd of bighorns bighorns occupied occupied the area area at the the head head of Rifle Creek dming during recent recent historic historic times. 14 animals times. In the the winter winter of 1947-48, 1947-48,14 animals could be accounted accounted for; thus thus the the transplant transplant of 17 17 sheep sheep that that winter winter supplemented supplemented an existing existing herd. herd. By the winter the herd the winter of 1951-52 1951-52the herd was causing causing damage age to haystacks haystacks on on a Rifle Creek ranch. ranch. At the the rancher's equest, most rancher's rrequest, most of the the herd herd was trapped trapped and and moved moved to an area area near near Ladore Ladore Canyon. Canyon, Dinosaur Dinosaur National National Monument. Monument. Not Not more more than than six sheep sheep were were left, and these these gradually gradually disappeared peared through through the the 1950's. 1950's. A lone lone ewe was seen seen 1960, and no bighorns bighorns have have been been seen seen on the the in 1960, Hogback Hogback since since that that time. time. Brush Brush Creek The supThe transplant transplant of eight eight animals animals in 1950 1950supplemented 50 sheep) plemented a small small but but thrifty thrifty herd herd (35~ (35-50sheep) native to to the the area. area. During During the the winter winter and and spring spring native of 1951-52 an unusually 1951-52an unusually heavy heavy snowfall snowfall trapped trapped many sheep, sheep, resulting resulting in death death by starvation. starvation. many The remnants remnants of the the herd herd continued continued to decline decline and At the and were were no longer longer seen seen by 1960. 1960.At the present present time, time, no sheep sheep e:'\.ist exist in the the area. area. Saguache Creek Saguache This This is unquestionably unquestionably the the most most successful successful bighorn transplant transplant ever ever accomplished accomplished in Color Colorado. bighorn ado. A herd herd was present present north north of this this area area in alpine alpine habitat habitat on Mount Mount Antero, Antero, Mount Mount Ou.ray, Ouray, and Mount Mount Chipeta, Chipeta, and and another another herd herd existed existed to the the southwest southwest in the the San Luis Luis Peak Peak area, area, but but there there was apparently apparently no movement movement from either either of of these these herds herds into into the the low elevation, elevation, ponderosa ponderosa pine-bunchgrass pine-bunchgrass range range interspersed interspersed with with rocky bluffs bluffs and cliffs along along Saguache Saguache Creek. Creek. The original inal transplant transplant of 15 15 sheep sheep has has grown grown into into a herd of over over 200. 200. Distribution Distribution is generally generally easteastherd ward ward and and northeastward northeastward from old Cochetopa Cochetopa Pass, Pass, along along the north north side side of Saguache Saguache Creek. The The herd is healthy healthy and and vigorous, vigorous, the the age-class age-class strucstrucherd ture shows shows good representation representation of young young animals, animals, ture and the the trend trend in in population population is still still upward. upward. Lador~ Canyon Canyon Lado1·~ 1'his This transplant, transplant, made made in the hope hope of building building a bighorn bighorn herd herd in historic historic range range unoccupied unoccupied for for many many years, years, was just just outside outside the the bow1dary boundary of Dinosaur National National Monument. Monument. The transplant, transplant, Dinosaw· made consisted of 15 made in 1952, 1952,consisted 15 animals animals direct direct from the Tan-yall Tarryall area, area, and and 17 17 animals animals that that had been been the transplanted transplanted from from Tan:yall Tarryall to Rifle Hogback Hogback in 1948. 1948. Very shortly, shortly, the the major major range range of the the transtransplanted ,adore Canyon planted herd herd became became confined confined to ILadore Canyon proper, National proper, within within the the Monument. Monument. By By 1969, 1959,National Park Park Service personnel personnel estimated estimated the herd herd size to be about about 140 140 sheep. sheep. No detailed detailed census census has to been been made made in recent recent years, years, but but sheep sheep are are commonly monly seen seen by people people making making float-h·ips float-trips through through the the canyon. canyon. H It is likely likely that that the the population population has stabilized or decreased decreased somewhat somewhat dming during the last last stabilized decade. decade. Data on age-class age-class structure structure and lamb lamb survival are not not available. available. survival Sapinero Sapinero It It must must be assumed assumed that that an all six of the the bighorns horns released released at this this site site during during the winter winter of 1969-70 and the are still 1969-70and the summer summer of 1970 1970are still present; present; and in addition, addition, two lambs lambs were were observed observed during during the spring spring and and summer summer of 1971. 1971. It i"S is still still too early to comment comment on the success success or failure failure of the the transplant. transplant. William H. H. Rutherford Rutherford Wildlife Researcher Researcher April, 1972 1972 April, �Outdoor Outdoor Facts Facts PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO D~PARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES d ' I •... ".. I~ 41 DIVISION DIVISION OF GAME, GAME. FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS Number Number 93 Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING EVALUATING BIGHORN BIGHORN SHEEP SHEEP TRANSPLANTING TRANSPLANTING SITES SITES IN COLORADO a Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet No. 92 92 (Ruther(Rutherford 1972), 1972), immediately immediately preceding preceding this this number, number, records records information information on all original original bighorn bighorn sheep sheep ((Ovis Ovis canadensis canadensis canadensis) canadensis) transplants transplants in Colorado rado and and discusses discusses the the current current (1972) (1972) status status of herds in the the various various transplant transplant areas. areas. herds From From this this information, information, it is clear clear that that some some transplants transplants have have been been successful, successful, some some only only marginally marginally successful, successful, and others others unsuccessful. unsuccessful. Furthermore, all of the Furthermore, the transplant transplant sites sites were were judged judged to offer offer excellent excellent possibilities possibilities at the time time the the releases releases were were made. made. Using Using the the experience experience gained gained from observing observing the the results results of these these releases, leases, and and adding adding information information since since obtained obtained from specific specific studies studies of bighorn bighorn sheep sheep habitat habitat requirements, requirements, general general guidelines guidelines for evaluating evaluating potential potential bighorn bighorn transplant transplant areas, areas, apparently apparently applicable applicable to Colorado, Colorado, have have been been developed. developed. In applying applying these these guidelines, guidelines, it must must always always be borne borne in mind mind that that bighorn bighorn sheep sheep have have narrow narrow tolerance tolerance limits limits on what what is acceptable acceptable as habitat, habitat, and and in making making a final final positive positive recomrecommendation the the possibility possibility that that a transplant transplant will mendation be unsuccessful unsuccessful cannot cannot be eliminated. eliminated. The The sheep sheep themselves themselves will make make the the final decision. decision. FurtherFurthermore, more, subtle subtle habitat habitat changes changes which which might might occur occur while while a transplanted transplanted herd herd is becoming becoming established established can reverse reverse the the initial initial success success of a transplant. transplant. In fact, some some of these these subtle subtle (and (and not not so subtle) subtle) changes changes can alter alter the the acceptability acceptability of habitat habitat long long after after an established established herd herd has has existed existed in an area, and and can thus thus be the the initial initial contributor contributor to area, the the eventual eventual demise demise of the the herd. herd. quality bighorn bighorn sheep sheep habitat habitat must must Good quality provide provide seasonal seasonal elevational elevational ranges. ranges. Much of the the decline decline of bighorn bighorn sheep sheep in the the past past must must be attributed attributed to the the loss loss of good good winter winter range, range, and and it is entirely entirely unrealistic unrealistic to expect expect either either a supplemental supplemental or a new transplant transplant to survive survive in habitat habitat that that is marginal marginal in this this respect. respect. In any any case case where where a supplemental supplemental transplant transplant is proposed, proposed, the the initial initial investigation investigation should should establish establish whether whether Fig. Fig. 1 Good interspersion interspersion of grazing grazing areas areas and and rocky rocky escape escape cover cover on alpine alpine summer summer range, range, Sand Sand Creek, Creek, Sangre Sangre de Cristo Cristo Mountains. Mountains. This This is a highly highly favored favored lambing lambing ground ground for the the resident resident bighorn bighorn sheep sheep herd. herd. (Photo (Photo by W. H. Rutherford) Rutherford) aa Contribution Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-41-R W-41-R f' �winter winter range range is limiting limiting the the existing existing herd. herd. There There are are some some areas areas in Colorado, Colorado, notably notably in the the San Juan Juan Mountains, Mountains, where where native native bighorn bighorn herds herds still still maintain maintain themselves themselves by wintering wintering on windswept swept ridges ridges above above timberline, timberline, and and have have continued to exist tinued exist in this this fashion fashion long long after after all lowlowelevation elevation winter winter range range has has become become unsuitable unsuitable or unavailable. unavailable. It is to the the credit credit of these these native native herds herds that that they they are able to survive, survive, but but it would would not not be very realistic realistic to attempt attempt transplanting transplanting in such such locations. locations. The need need for rock outcroppings, outcroppings, precipitous precipitous cliffs, and and generally generally rough rough topographic topographic features features as a part part of the the physical physical habitat habitat of bighorns bighorns is, of course, course, well known known and hardly hardly requires requires comment. ment. Less well appreciated, appreciated, perhaps, perhaps, is the degree gree to which which juxtaposition juxtaposition and and interspersion interspersion of these these features features with with grazing grazing areas areas influence influence the the potential potential value value of the the grazing grazing areas. areas. Many Many lush lush and productive productive alpine alpine meadows meadows never never receive receive bighorn bighorn use use because because they they are situated situated too too far from escape escape cover. cover. Over-utilization Over-utilization and range range deterioration deterioration frequently frequently occur in the vicinity vicinity of ridge ridge tops, tops, rocky promontories, promontories, and steep steep cliffs. Good interspersion interspersion provides provides a maximum maximum amount amount of actually actually usable usable habitat habitat expressed expressed in terms terms of carrying carrying capacity. capacity. This is especially especially important important with with respect respect to lambing lambing grounds, grounds, as ewes exhibit hibit almost almost a complete complete refusal refusal to venture venture from the the rocky locations locations chosen chosen for rearing rearing lambs lambs until until the lambs lambs are at least least two months months old. In In summary, summary, rough rough terrain terrain in itself itself is not not necessarily sarily a criterion criterion of good good sheep sheep habitat; habitat; there there must must also be well-interspersed well-interspersed and and usable usable grazing areas. areas. Fig. of grazing Fig. 2. Good interspersion interspersion grazing area area and and rocky rocky escape escape cover cover on bighorn bighorn sheep sheep winter winter range, range, Saguache Saguache Creek. Creek. (Photo (Photo by W. H. Rutherford Rutherford) ) The first first step step in evaluation evaluation of a proposed proposed transplant transplant site site should should be an aerial aerial reconnaisreconnaissance, during during late late February February or March, to assess assess sance, winter snow snow depth, depth, juxtaposition juxtaposition of potential potential winter summer summer and and winter winter ranges, ranges, and and the the actual actual amount of snow-free snow-free winter winter range. range. General General deep amount snow snow conditions conditions with with only only small small patches patches of bare bare ridge ridge tops tops or south-facing south-facing slopes, slopes, or potential potential winter winter range range far removed removed from alpine alpine summer summer range, should should be cause cause for rejection. rejection. This rerange, connaissance, connaissance, as well as all subsequent subsequent field work, must must be done done in cooperation cooperation with the the land land work, management management agency agency involved, involved, either either the the Forest Forest Service or the the Bureau Bureau of Land Land Management. Management. Service Open grassy grassy parks parks or hillsides hillsides below timbertimberline and and nearly nearly any any above-timberline above-timberline alpine alpine line tundra will provide provide good to excellent excellent summer summer tundra range. range. As long long as such such sites sites exist exist on proposed proposed transplant transplant areas, areas, plant plant species species composition composition is not not critical critical because, because, by their their very very nature, nature, these these sites are dominated dominated by the the grasses, grasses, grass-like grass-like sites plants, plants, and and forbs that that bighorns bighorns prefer. prefer. Plant Plant species species composition composition is an important important consideraconsideration tion in in evaluating evaluating winter winter range, range, however, however, because because of limitations limitations on availability. availability. It matters matters little little that that a south-facing south-facing slope may may be free of snow most most of the the winter, winter, if it is dominated dominated by a shrub shrub community munity having having very very little little understory, understory, or has has been been overgrazed overgrazed to such such a degree degree that that only undesirable desirable species species are present. present. Fig. 3. The The alpine alpine tundra tundra in the the foreground foreground on on Buffalo Buffalo Fig. Peaks Peaks receives receives practically practically no no use use by bighorn bighorn because because of non-proximity non-proximity of escape escape cover. cover. This This lack of interinterspersion spersion on summer summer range range limits limits usefulness usefulness and and constitutes a severe severe deficiency deficiency on on a proposed proposed transplant transplant stitutes site. site. (Photo (Photo by W. H. Rutherford) Rutherford) The The loss of much much good bighorn bighorn winter winter range range and and the the importance importance of making making sure sure that that adequate adequate winter winter range range exists exists in a proposed proposed transplant transplant area, area, discussed discussed previously, previously, leads leads to a discussion discussion competition. Bighorns Bighorns generally generally do not not thrive thrive of competition. in competition competition with with other other grazing grazing ungulates, ungulates, and domestic domestic livestock livestock animals animals appear appear to be the the most most competitive. competitive. Ideally, Ideally, bighorn bighorn sheep sheep range range at all seasons seasons of year year should should be free from competitive petitive grazers; grazers; but but since since this this is is rarely rarely possible possible it becomes becomes necessary necessary to compromise compromise in selection selection of transplant transplant sites. sites. As a general general guideline, guideline, the the presence presence of domestic domestic sheep sheep in alpine alpine areas areas during summer or heavy summer and/ and (or heavy use use of winter winter range range �by any grazing grazing animals animals should should be cause cause for rerejection jection of the site. site. Finally, influence must Finally, the effect effect of humaJn human influence must be considered. considered. This This means means not not so much much the the mere mere presence presence of humans, humans, but but the the inevitable inevitable presence presence of all those those things things associated associated with with human human usage usage - automobiles automobiles and and highways, highways, buildings, buildings, fences, fences, water water development, development, dogs, dogs, etc etc.. The The degree degree of human tolerate human activity activity that that bighorn bighorn sheep sheep will tolerate is so variable variable in different different situations situations that that no firm the quality guidelines guidelines can can be set. Obviously, Obviously, the quality of potential potential bighorn bighorn habitat habitat is in inverse inverse ratio ratio to the but the the point the amount amount of human human influence, influence, but point at which which habitat habitat might might be rendered rendered unsuitable unsuitable in this this respect respect can be determined determined only only by subsubjective jective judgment. judgment. In all probability, probability, if a proposed proposed transplant because of the the transplant site should should be rejected rejected because human be rehuman int'luence influence factor, factor, it should should also also be jected jected for other other reasons reasons as well. Fig. Fig. 4. This This south-facing south-facing slope slope on Mill Mill Creek Creek north north of Gunnison, Gunnison, at at approximately approximately 8,500 8,500 reet feet elevation, elevation, remains mains snow-free snow-free during during most most winters winters and and should should be be ideal Much ideal bighorn bighorn winter winter range. range. Much of it, however, however, would have have limited limited usefulness usefulness due due to poor poor interspe. intersper-r would sion (Photo sion of rocky rocky escape escape cover. cover. (Photo by W. H. Rutherford) Rutherford) LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE Rutherford, Rutherford, William William H. 1972. 1972. Status Status of transtransplanted planted bighorn bighorn sheep sheep in Colorado. Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Fish and Parks, Parks, Game Inform. Inform. Lean. Leafl. No. 92. 92. 3 p p.. �Outdoor Facts Facts P UBLISHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT oF OF NATURALRESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION DIVISION OF OF GAME GAME,, FISH FISH AND AND PARKS PARKS Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information wIff . "', -_. I , ' Number 94 Number A VIDEO TIME-LAPSE TIME-LAPSE SYSTEM SYSTEM FOR WILDLIFE WILDLIFE SURVEILLANCEa SURVEILLANCE a The inability inability of researchers researchers to make make continual continual The and and accurate accurate observations observations over over extended extended periods periods of time of the time limits limits their their understanding understanding the nocturnal nocturnal behavior behavior of animals. animals. Ozoga and and Gysel (1965) (1965) reported reported on a mechanical mechanical recorder recorder for measuring measuring deer deer activity. activity. Richter Richter (1955) (1955) used used "Scotchlite" "Scotchlite" tape tape and artificial artificial light to identify identify small animals. animals. Prenzlow Prenzlow (1969) (1969) tested tested a pulsating pulsating small neon light light embedded embedded in a canvas canvas collar collar on elk. neon Photographic recorders recorders have have also been been used. used. Photographic Dodge and Snyder Snyder (1960) (1960) used used a 16 16 mm camera camera triggered by a solar solar cell. A more recent recent wildlife triggered photographic photographic system system produced produced by Lund Lund Electronics tronics utilized utilized an infrared infrared sensor sensor to trigger trigger a super super 8 mm camera. camera. Patton Patton et al. (1972) (1972) and Temple (1972) (1972) likewise likewise discussed discussed application application of Temple a super super 8 mm camera camera with with time-lapse time-lapse capability. capability. All such such photographic photographic systems, systems, however, however, are limited limited by the the sensitivity sensitivity of the the film to the the low light levels levels prevailing prevailing at night. night. light Several Several types types of night night vision vision devices, devices, such such as described described by Swanson Swanson and and Sargeant Sargeant (1972), (1972), and surveillance surveillance systems systems developed developed primarily primarily for military military or research research purposes, purposes, have have become become availcommercial use. One such such system system involves involves able for commercial the the use use of a silicon silicon diode camera camera and a timelapse lapse video video recorder. recorder. The present present paper paper describes describes system utilizing utilizing the the silicon silicon diode diode camera camera at a system twilight to deep twilight twilight and and under under low artificial artificial twilight light light (10.0 (10.0 to 1.0 1.0 Lux b ) levels. levels. AND MATERIALS MATERIALS METHODS AND In the course course of evaluating evaluating deer deer ((Odocoileus In Odocoileus hemionus hemionus hemionus) hemionus) behavior behavior near near a deer underunderpass pass in western western Colorado, Colorado, a video surveillance surveillance system sed from May 19 system was uused 19 to June June 30, 30, 1972, 1972, and and from October October 17 17 to November November 23, 23, 1972, 1972, during during the spring spring and and fall migrations. migrations. Components Components of the the system system were enclosed enclosed in a housing housing for the the a Contribution Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R W-38-R b 1.0 1.0 Lux Lux equals equals 0.093 0,093 foot-candles foot-candles purpose of maintaining maintaining relatively relatively low humidity humidity purpose and and constant constant temperature. temperature. A shroud shroud was placed placed over the observation window window (Fig. 1). over the observation Fig. Fig. 1. 1. The The housing housing containing containing the the video video surveillance surveillance system system was stationed stationed near near the the Vail deer deer underpass. underpass. (Photo (Photo by authors) authors) The The thermopane thermopane glass glass window window covering covering could could readily readily be removed removed or replaced replaced from inside inside the housing. housing. Externally, Externally, the the housing housing was painted painted forest forest green green in order order to blend blend with with the the backbackground. ground. The housing housing size, 5 feet high, high, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet long, long, allowed allowed sufficient sufficient space for a seated seated occupant occupant to operate operate the the equipment, equipment, situated situated so as to place the the camera camera approximately approximately 25 25 or 30 30 feet from the the underpass underpass entrance entrance area, area, covering covering a 30° 30° field of view. The The basic components, components, including including the the TV TV camera, camera, video video recorder, recorder, and monitor, monitor, are shown shown inside inside the the housing housing in Figure Figure 2. The camera camera (RCA (ReA PK-501) PK-501) was equipped equipped with with silicon silicon diode array array vidicon vidicon (pick-up (pick-up tube) tube), , with with a spectral spectral response response image image tube tube of 0.45 0.45 to 1.1 1.1 µ J.L ,, 0.7 0.7 to l.l µJ.L �being in the the infrared infrared range. range. Both Both infrared infrared and and being visible light (0.4 to 0.7 0.7}J.µ ) may may therefore, therefore, be visible light (0.4 used as a light light source. important, however, however, used source. Most important, was the the sensitivity the image image tube tube to low sensitivity of the light levels levels (down (down to about about 1.0 1.0 Lux). Lux). The timetimelight lapse video video recorder recorder was a Panasonic Panasonic NV-8020P, NV-8020P, lapse factory record at normal normal (60 fields/see) factory set set to record (60 fields / sec) and 24-hour time-lapse time-lapse (1.5 fields fields/see) speeds on and / sec) speeds 1/2-inch video tape. tape. Table Table 1 summarizes the total total 1/ 2-inch video summarizes the components of the the system system and and lists lists the the approxapproxcomponents imate costs. costs. imate Table 1. L Components Components and approximate costs costs of video video Table and approximate time-lapse system. time-lapse system. Component Component Approximate Cose: Cost Approximate a 8 .PJ<-50l RCA PK-SOI camara camera w/dlicon w/silicon diode array array vidicon RCA diode vldicon $1,595 $l, 595 Camera lens: 1. 2. 2, Fujinon CCTV CF CF 25 auto iris Fujinon CCIV 2S B-4EE S-4E£ auco irls ((25 25 ~~ £/1.4) f / l.4) Ampex televsion lens LE610 ((25 mm f/.95) Ao1pex televsion !en• 25 ma, f/.95) Panasonic NV-B020P timetime-lapse video recor recorder P.a.nnsonic W/-802:0P lapts~ video de r 325 325 140 l40 l1,750 1 750 Panasonic 9-inch TN TN-95 monitor 9-inch - 9S monit.or P.lna.sonic 295 tripod with IV head head tpod \Ji th 1V Husky 4 t.r 82 Ampex 0 D.S-inch video tapes tapes (2400 Ampex . 5- i nch vidc:Q (2400 D) D) @ $22 e-.1ch each 5 @ 110 llO Total Tot.tl $4,297 <J.Trade and comp.any company na~.a names are are used used for the bC!nc-fic benefit of the the re:o1der reader .ind and do not nTrade for ch~ of not endorsement or preferontial preferential treatment by by the Colorado Colorado Division imply endonc:menc cret1Cment Division of Wild!He, wild 1He. of bUsed only .-s as att an alt<!'rnate alternate and back-up lens. . bused only .1nd back - up lens entrances, and exits were were tallied, tallied, and and behavioral entrances, and exits behavioral responses exhibited exhibited at the the underpass underpass entrance, entrance, responses such as wariness, wariness, flight flight reaction and investigainvestigasuch reaction and behavior, were were noted. noted. tive behavior, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION RESULTS The surveillance surveillance system most effective The system was most effective during early early morning morning and ev evening hours during and ening hours (twilight), but but gave satisfactory satisfactory results (twilight), results at night night under low artificial artificial light light levels levels (two baffled baffled 150w 150w under outdoor floodlights). floodlights). Imagery deer recorded recorded outdoor Imagery of deer under these these conditions conditions was later later reviewed reviewed with with under acceptable to good good definition. definition. Most deer were deer were acceptable found to make make several several approaches approaches to the the underunderfound pass before before entering. During the the test test period, 890 period, 890 pass entering. During entrances occurred occurred at the the underpass underpass and and 2,234 2,234 entrances approaches (Table (Table 2) were were recorded, recorded, or 2.5 apapproaches proaches per entrance. The number number of passages passages proaches per entrance. was calculated calculated by subtracting subtracting the the number number of exits from the the number number of entrances. entrances. Using this Using this exits method, 3.1 approaches approaches per per passage passage were were deterdetermethod, mined, based 728 passages. passages. mined, based on 728 Fig. 2. The The basic components of the the video video surveillance surveillance Fig. basic components system included the the TV camera, camera, video video recorder recorder, , and and system included monitor. View of underpass underpass entrance shown on the the monitor. entrance is shown monitor. . (Photo (Photo by authors) monitor authors) Monitoring deer behavior at underpass Monitoring deer behavior at the the underpass carried out out daily, daily, May 18-July 18-July 1 (except (except for was carried several recorder failures) failures) and and October October 17-Novemseveral recorder ber 23, 1972. 1972. The The system system was activated activated in the the ber 23, evening to provide approximately 12 12 hours hours of evening provide approximately continuous recording. recording. In the the morning, morning, an an operacontinuous operator replayed replayed the the video video tape, tape, using using the the normal normal tor speed (58.5 (58.5 more faster than than recorded) recorded) more fields/see fields / sec faster speed locating the the presence deer imagery imagery or for presence of deer for locating quick review, review, and and the the 24-hour, time-lapse speed 24-hour, time-lapse speed quick (same recorded) for more detailed observaobserva(same as recorded) more detailed tions. The The number recorded deer deer approaches, number of recorded approaches, tions. Table 2. Number deer approaches approaches, , entrances entrances, , exits exits, , Table umber of deer and passages passages recorded recorded by video video system system at at the and the Vail deer underpass during during the the spring spring and and fall migrations, migrations, deer underpass 1972. Month Mon th c M:>yc May Entrances Enlri'.lnce.s Exits e>::U:s S 4 Psssages Pas:sages b Approaches Approachesb 93 26 67 Juned June 186 23 163 163 728 0October c cobcr 273 49 M 224 525 525 November t:ovr:tiibe..r 338 J38 64 274 214 692 692 Total Total 890 890 162 162 728 728 2,234 2,234 d 289 passages equal number of of entraace:s entrances minus number of exits. Number of □ f net net passages equal minus numbl:!..r o[ exits. 3 aNumber bNumber o off ttimes deer ap appeared in tthe field of view. bNumbe"C" i mes deer peared in he field of vie"''· ~y 19 May 2626-31, days. . ~}' l~ and May 3 1~ 77 days dJune, except 18th, and 22nd, 22nd, 27 da.ys. days. dJ une, exc pt 16th, 16th , l8r:h, �Many deer deer looked overhead overhead during during approaches proaches and before before making making entrances entrances (Fig. 3). Others Others occasionally occasionally showed showed flight flight reaction, reaction, leaving the field of view or exiting exiting the underpass underpass rapidly. rapidly. Use of the the time-lapse time-lapse video video surveillance surveillance system system has has provided provided a new method method of of recording recording deer activity activity and should should prove prove valuable valuable for other other animal-behavior animal-behavior studies. studies. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Mr. Herb Banister, Banister, then then of Davis Davis AudioAudioVisual, Inc technical assistance. Inc.,., provided provided technical assistance. Dr. Lee E. Yeager, Yeager, Harold Harold M. Swope, and William H. Rutherford Rutherford critically critically reviewed reviewed this this paper, paper, hereherewith ackinowledged with appreciation. acknowledged with appreciation. LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED Fig. Fig. 3. Photograph Photograph from the monitor monitor screen screen during during video video replay replay shows shows deer entering entering underpass. underpass. The The close-up close-up photograph photograph failed failed to to show show the same same clarity clarity as disdisplayed played on the the monitor. monitor. Note deer deer looking looking overhead. overhead. (Photo (Photo by authors) authors) Six collared collared animals animals were recorded recorded by the the system (Fig (Fig.. 4) 4) during during thespringmigration the spring migration video system during the fall. These These included included several several and 77 during deer deer banded banded with automatic automatic tagging tagging devices (Siglin 1966). 1966). Based Based on tagging tagging locations, locations, the (Siglin deer deer had traveled traveled aa minimum minimum of 0.76 0.76 mile along along the 8-foot fence fence before before arriving arriving at the the underpass underpass entrance. entrance. Fig. Fig. 4. Photograph Photograph from monitor monitor screen screen shows shows one of several several collared collared animals animals recorded recorded entering entering the the underunderpass. pass. (Photo (Photo by authors) authors) Dodge, W. W. E., and and D. D. P. Snyder. Snyder. 1960. 1960. AnautoAn automatic matic camera camera device for recording recording wildlife wildlife activity. :340-342. activity. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 24(3) 24(3):340-342. Ozoga, JJ.. J., and L. W. Gysel. 1965. 1965. A mechanmechanical recorder recorder for measuring measuring deer activity. activity. JJ.. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(3):632-634. 29(3):632-634. Patton, Patton, D. D. R., V. E. Scott, and and E. L. Becker. Becker. 1972. time-lapse 1972. Construction Construction of an 8 mm time-lapse camera for biological biological research. USDA Forest Forest camera research. USDA Res. Paper Paper RM-88. RM-88. 8 p. Prenzlow, Prenzlow, E E.. J. 1968. 1968. A pulsating pulsating light light for for iden1tifying identifying animals animals at night. night. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish Fish and and Parks. Parks. Game Inform. Inform. Leafl. No. No. ;,5. 75. 2 p. Richter, W. C. 1955. 1955. A technique technique for night night Richter, identification of animals. animals. iden1tification J. Wildl. Mgmt. 19(1)1:159-160. 19(1):159-160. Siglin, R. JJ.. 1966. 1966. Marking Marking mule mule deer deer with with an automatic automatic tagging tagging device. J. Wild!. Wildl. Mgmt. )t :631-633. 30(3 30(3):631-633. Swansom, Swanson, G. A., and and A. B. Sargeant. Sargeant. 1972. 1972. Observation behavior of ducks. servation of nighttime nighttime behavior ducks. J. 36(3):959-96l. Wildl. Mgmt. 36(3):959-961. Temple, S.A. 1972. 1972. A portable portable time-lapse time-lapse camera camera Temple, for r,ecording recording wildlife activity. activity. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36(3):944-947. :944-947. 36(3) Dale F. Reed Assistant Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Thomas Thomas M. M. Pojar Pojar Assistant Assistant Wildlife Researcher Researcher Thomas N N.. Woodard Thomas Woodard Senior Senior Research Research Technician Technician 1973 March, 1973 �Facts Outdoor Facts PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO PUBLISHED THE COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENToFNATURALRESOURCES DIVISION OF OF GAME, GAME, FISH FISH AND PARKS DIVISION AND PARKS Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information ,if I " -"• t . ' ".- .. I~ ~ Number Number 95 TECHNIQUES FOR SUPPLEMENTING SUPPLEMENTING DIET, DIET, ATTRACTING ATTRACTING TECHNIQUES BIGHORN SHEEP SHEEP a AND BAITING BAITING BIGHORN Previous attempts attempts to improve improve the welfare of Previous the welfare bighorn sheep sheep by providing providing mineralized mineralized s~lt have have bighorn indicated that such dietary dietary supplementation supplementatIOn has has indicated that such management technique. a place place as a management technique. Since salt salt used as an attractant attractant without without rel?ard may also be used re~ard value as a dietary dietary supplement, supplement, and and smce smce to its value other substances substances may be used used as attractants attractants or other baits in trapping trapping bighorn specific study study baits bighorn sheep, sheep, a specific investigate acceptance, usage and efficient to investigate acceptance, usage and efficient placement of salt, salt, minerals and feed for bighorns bighorns placement minerals and was undertaken undertaken by the the Research Research Section Section of the the Colorado Division Division of Wildlife. Wildlife. This This paper Colorado paper presents presents guidelines for using using supplements supplements and and attractants, guidelines attractants, developed over over two years years of field testing. testing. developed MINERALIZED SALT SALT AND MINERALIZED SALT Hopefully, studies studies of nutritional nutritional deficiencies deficiencies Hopefully, and needs needs on bighorn bighorn sheep sheep range range will eventually eventually and provide information information on precisely what what elements elements provide on precisely need to be supplemented, supplemented, and in what what proportions proportions need and amounts. amounts. At the the present present time time it appears appears that that and mineralized salt blocks standardized by the the livemineralized salt blocks standardized stock industry industry for general general range range use use offer offer the stock the best available source minerals. best available source of supplementary supplementary minerals. Accordingly, mineral mineral blocks blocks from two separate separate Accordingly, manufacturers, Carey and and Moorman, Moorman, were were tested tested manufacturers, acceptance and usage sheep, and and the the most most for acceptance usage by sheep, efficient placement ability to withstand withstand efficient placement and ability weathering. weathering. The major major differences differences between between the the two blocks blocks The the Carey Carey Range-Min Range-Min block contains contains from are: the 50.0 to 53.0 53.0 percent percent salt salt (NaCI), while the the Moor50.0 (NaCl), while man Special Special Range Mineral block contains contains only only man Range Mineral 17.5 to 21.0 percent salt. salt. But But the Moorman Moorman from 17.5 21.0 percent block contains 15.0 to 18.0 18.0 percent calcium, block contains from 15.0 percent calcium, while the the Carey Carey block contains contains only only from 7.5 7.5 to while calcium. Levels Levels of other other minerals minerals, , 9.0 percent percent calcium. particularly trace elements, elements, are approximately approximately particularly in trace equal in the the two blocks. equal blocks. Past experience experience has indicated that that the the higher higher Past has indicated the salt salt (NaCl) content more the content of a block, block, the the more attractive and palatable palatable it is to bighorns, the attractive and bighorns, to the Federal Aid Project Project W-41-R a Contribution Contribution from Federal W-41-R Fig. 1. 1. Bighorn and lambs using Carey Fig. Bighorn ewe and lambs using Carey Range-Min Range-Min block, side of Pikes Peak, summer 1972. (Photo (Photo block south south side Pikes Peak, summer 1972. by William H. Rutherford) Rutherford) point that that if bighorns bighorns are offered offered a pure pure white white point salt block block (100 use it to salt (100 percent percent NaCl) they they will use the exclusion of mineralized mineralized blocks the complete complete exclusion blocks when when choice is given. It appears appears that that if mineral mineral a choice given. It blocks are to be of value value in bighorn bighorn dietary dietary supblocks supplements, the the formula formula mu_st mu.st be a compromis_e compromis.e plements, between salt salt content content and mmeral content. content. In this thIS between and mmeral study, when when sheep sheep were offered a choice choice between between study, were offered blocks containing containing approximately approximately 20 percent and and blocks 20 percent 50 percent percent salt, the block block having having the the higher higher salt salt 50 salt, the content was invariably invariably selected. The Carey Carey content selected. The Range-Min block appears Range-Min appears to offer offer the the best best compromise and mineral mineral conpromise between between acceptability acceptability and tent. Bighorns Bighorns will use use this this block if it is the the tent. only one provided. provided. only one Blocks placed open rocky rocky ridge-tops, ridge-tops, and and Blocks placed on open on open open flat areas close to rocky rocky escape esc~pe cover, cover, on areas close received more more use use than than blocks placed m depresreceived blocks placed depressions, brushy brushy areas open flat areas areas a~ay sions, areas or open a~ay from escape cover. cover. This This corroborates IS known known escape corroborates what what 1s generally true regarding bighorn bighorn habitat habitat to be generally true regarding preferences (Rutherford (Rutherford 1972). 1972). In selecting selecting locapreferences loca- �tions tions for placing placing mineral mineral blocks, blocks, it it is more more logical logical to choose choose those those sites sites to which which sheep sheep will naturally naturally move, move, rather rather than than attempt attempt to use the the blocks blocks as attractants attractants to less desirable desirable locations, locations, assuming assuming that that the the primary primary purpose purpose is to provide provide supplements. supplements. If, in certain certain instances, instances, it is desirable to use use blocks blocks for their their attractant attractant value value (e.g., (e.g., baiting baiting sheep sheep to a trap trap or keeping keeping them them away away from from heavily-traveled heavily-traveled highways), highways), it is better better to use use the the plain plain white white block block than than a mineral mineral block. -· I llill!"'""-'la,jlliilJM,...__, --- - -...;.~-- - -:1, .... - ~~- ~ 41':"-A_ .... -:~~·~ ..__ ~-~ .. • ;..· J - · ··~~-:,,.-_-_..;- . --..-. . . """'I.II ... _ . __ Fig. Fig. 3. 3. Bighorn Bighorn sheep sheep caught caught with with drop-net drop-net trap, trap, south south side Note alfalfa side of Pikes Pikes Peak, Peak, winter winter 1972-73. 1972-73.Note alfalfa hay hay and net right right of ram and apple-pulp apple-pulp bait bait under under net ram and and outoutside side of net net to the the right. right. (Photo (Photo by Robert Robert L. Schmidt) Schmidt) Fig. 2. Carey Carey Range-Min Range-Min block two two weeks weeks after after being being Fig. placed, Tarryall Tarryall Range, Range, winter winter 1971-72, 1971-72,showing placed, showing bighorn sheep sheep usage. usage. (Photo (Photo by William William H. Rutherford) Rutherford) horn All blocks tested tested withstood withstood weathering weathering remarkably well when when placed placed on ridge-tops ridge-tops or orother other markably well-drained well-drained sites. sites. Those Those placed placed where where moisture moisture could collect collect showed showed deterioration deterioration over over a period period could of several several months, months, but but nevertheless nevertheless held held up so well that that weathering weathering can can be discounted discounted as a potential tential problem. problem. FEED FOR BAITING BAITING AND ATTRACTING ATTRACTING FEED Prior Prior to 1971, 1971, nearly nearly all work work with with bighorn bighorn sheep sheep which which involved involved baiting baiting them them to a trap trap or controlling controlling their their movements movements and distribution distribution made made use use of salt salt and and alfalfa alfalfa hay, hay, either either separateseparatecombination. the trapping trapping on on All of the ly or in combination. Tarryall and 1952, Tarryall Creek between between 1944 1944and 1952, accounting accounting for 218 218 animals, animals, was through through the the use use of these these two common common attractants. attractants. An additional additional 12 12 sheep sheep were trapped trapped in 1969 1969 and and 1970 1970 on Pikes Pikes Peak Peak were with with the the same same bait. bait. In In 1971, 1971, personnel personnel of the the Colorado Colorado Bighorn Bighorn Sheep Sheep Investigation Investigation Project, Project, W-41-R, W-41-R, began began experimenting perimenting with with baits baits and and attractants attractants as a preliminary liminary to a sheep sheep trapping trapping and and marking marking study study conducted conducted on the the Cache la Poudre Poudre River River west west of Fort Fort Collins. Collins. Salt Salt and and alfalfa alfalfa hay hay were were naturally naturally the the first first baits baits tried. tried. Bighorns Bighorns would would come to these these baits, baits, but but not not with any any degree degree of consistconsist- ency; fmthermore, periods they they would furthermore, time time periods would spend spend on the were often the bait bait were often very very shorL short. The The first first few trial trial attempts attempts were were W1successful unsuccessful because because sheep sheep were were not not staying staying long long enough enough for for the the operators operators set up up and and ready. The need need for a bait to get set ready. The bait with greater greater attractiveness attractiveness was keenly felt. with was keenly Bighorn sheep sheep in in Glenwood Glenwood Canyon, Canyon, east east of Bighorn Glenwood have for a number Glenwood Springs, Springs, have number of of years years concentrated concentrated in an an apple apple orchard orchard at the the mouth mouth of Grizzly Creek, where they they consumed windfall Creek, where consumed windfall apples almost almost as rapidly rapidly as the the apples apples fell to the the apples ground. This This habit habit was common common knowledge knowledge to ground. personnel iinvolved involved in the the study study and, and, accordingly, accordingly, personnel several bushels bushels of apples apples were were procured procured and and several placed on on the the Poudre Poudre Canyon Canyon bait bait stations. stations. The The placed response by the sheep was somewhat somewhat short short of response the sheep expectations. They They would eat the the apples, apples, but expectations. would eat but would not not come come to the the site site or or stay stay on on the bait would the bait to any any greater greater degree degree than than when when salt salt and and alfalfa alfalfa were used. used. were The next next approach approach in the the search search for a dependable bighorn sheep bait bait fortunately coinbighorn sheep fortunately coindependable the autumn cided cided with with the autumn apple apple harvest harvest and and procesprocessing pulp or sing of apjple apple cider. cider. A quantity quantity of the the pulp "mash" was obtained, "mash" left left from from cider-making cider-making was obtained, placed on bait allowed allowed to ferment, ferment, and and then then placed bait stastations. The response bait by the sheep far response to this this bait the sheep tions. exceeded expectations. expectations. Only a few days days were exceeded were required quired to make make the the introduction; introduction; following following this, this, sheep woulld would seek seek out out the bait stations, stations, consume consume sheep the bait pulp and all of the the apple apple pulp and remain remain at the the station station attempting attempting to find more. more. One One successful successful trapping trapping operation, using this this bait, operation, using bait, was conducted conducted in Poudre the winter winter of 1971-72. Poudre Canyon Canyon during during the 1971-72.Other Other trapping year failed trapping at.tempts attempts that that year failed because because of of complications the operation complications in in the operation of the the trap, trap, but but these attempts attempts further further proved proved the the value apple these value of apple pulp as a b:ait. bait. pulp During the the winter 1972-73, after after most most of During winter of 1972-73, the with the trap had had been the difficulties difficulties with the trap been overcome, overcome, a bighorn bighorn sheep sheep trapping trapping operation operation was conducted conducted �on Pikes Pikes Peak Peak.. As expected, expected, only only a few days were were required required for the sheep sheep to become become "hooked" "hooked" on the the apple-pulp apple-pulp bait. Catches Catches were were made at five separate separate trap trap sites sites dming during the winter, winter, totaling totaling 75 75 sheep. sheep. During During the the periods periods of active trapping trapping attempts, attempts, apple apple pulp pulp was placed placed at the the trap trap site. site just just before before dark. Observation Observation the the following following morning morning began began shortly shortly after after daylight, daylight, before before the the sheep sheep left left the the bed ground. ground. Often, Often, the the observed observed behavior behavior of sheep sheep upon upon arising arising from the the bed ground ground was to line line up in single single file and head head for the the trap site at a run. run. Upon anival, arrival, they they would would immediately immediately begin begin eating eating the the apple apple pulp pulp and, and, oblivious oblivious to to anything anything around around them, them, stay stay on the the site until until the the last last scrap was consumed. consumed. The net net could could be dropped dropped at any time, time, with trapping trapping success success being being dependent dependent upon upon the the desires desires of the the operator operator and proper proper functioning functioning of the equipment. equipment. In In practice, practice, white white block salt salt and and alfalfa alfalfa hay must must still be used used in combination combination with with the apple pulp, pulp, particularly particularly when when establishing establishing a new trap trap site. site. Generally, Generally, a bait station station should should be started started with with only salt salt and and hay. Once sheep sheep begin begin using using these these baits, baits, the apple apple pulp pulp should should be added, added, since since it does not not appear appear to serve serve as an initial initial attractant attractant by itself. itself. Later, Later, after after sheep sheep have have begun begun eating eating the pulp, pulp, the the salt salt and hay hay provide provide extra extra incentive incentive for for sheep sheep to remain remain at the the bait station station or trap site. site. At no time, time, either either in prebaiting pre baiting or in actual pulp be used actual trapping, trapping, should should apple apple pulp used alone. alone. value of fermented With the the value fermented apple apple pulp pulp as a bighorn bighorn sheep sheep bait bait now firmly firmly established, established, the the possibilities possibilities of its use use in in therapeutic therapeutic treatment treatment become believe become apparent. apparent. There There is is every every reason reason to believe that that it will will provide provide an an excellent excellent vehicle vehicle for adadministering ministering drug drug dosages dosages to wild, free-ranging free-ranging bighorns bighorns in quantities quantities sufficient sufficient for successful successful treatment. treatment. The The search search for drugs drugs that that will, upon upon ingestion ingestion lby by bighorns, bighorns, kill larvae larvae and and adults adults of the the hair hair lungworm lungworm continues. continues. If If such such drugs drugs are found, now at hand. found, a way to administer administer them them is now hand. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED Rutherford, Rutherford, W. H H.. 1972. 1972. Guidelines Guidelines for evaluevaluating bighorn sheep transplanting sites ating !bighorn sheep transplanting sites in in Colorado. Wildlife, Game Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildlife, Game Inform. Inform. Lcafl. Leafl. No. 93. 93. 3 pp.. William William H. Rutherford Rutherford Wildlife Researcher Researcher and and Robert Robert L L.. Schmidt Schmidt Senior Senior Conservation Conservation Aide Octobel', 1973 1973 October, �Outdoor F Facts Outdo PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPA RTM ENToF A URALRESOURCES DIVISION OF GAME. GAME, FISH FISH AND PARKS DIVISION AND P RKS Number 96 96 Number Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information RELATION OF· OF THREE THREE PHYSICAL PHYSICAL CONDITION THE RELATION INDICES OF MULE DEER a Several procedures techniques have have been been Several procedures and techniques developed to estimate estimate the physical condition condition of developed the physical ungulates. These These methods methods range range from from gross gross wild ungulates. estimates general appearance live the general appearance of live estimates based based on the animals (Riney 1960) to field and laboratory and laboratory animals (Riney 1960) procedures used Anderson et al. (1972) (1972) that that procedures used by Anderson utilize various measurements measurements of carcass carcass fat inutilize various cluding weights weights of the the carcass. carcass. Some most Some of the the most cluding commonly used used indices indices of carcass carcass fat are: rwnp rump commonly measurement (RF) (RF) as described described by Riney Riney fat measurement (1955), the index (KFI) (KFI) originated originated by (1955), the kidney kidney fat index Riney (1955) and modified modified by Anderson (1955 ) and Anderson and and Riney (1965), marrow ), and and percentage percentage of femur femur marrow Medin (1965 fat (FMF) (FMF) using the ether ether extraction-gravimetric using the extraction-gravimetric method or the the reagent-dry reagent-dry assay method described described method assay method by Neiland Neiland (1970) (1970) and modified Verme and and modified by Venne Holland (1973). (1973). The The visual visual method method of estimating estimating Holland described by Cheatum Cheatum (1949) (1949)has widely. has been been widely FMF described used, but content other other than extemely but for FMF content than extemely used, high values this method method results results values this low or extremely extremely high in incorrect estimates in nearly 50 in nearly 50 percent percent of the the incorrect estimates cases (Verme and Holland Holland 1973, 1973, Table Table 1) 1).. cases (Verme and Table 1. Comparison Comparison of visual estimates vs. the ether Table visual estimates the ether extract .method method of determining determining femur femur marrow marrow fat extract fat content. content. Ether Etht".r Extract F.x t:ron Percent Fatt P~r ecnt Fa No. of! N.; . O Deer Oe.cr 1-10 110 " 11-25 11 - 25 a Visual Estimates Percent Visual Es t imatori Pe rcen t Fat F:ii ta 26-50 51-70 71-900 111-25 l- 2S Sl - 70 71-9 '6-50 _s ubb .533 .400 _LOO ..067 067 > ..102 102 .408 .i os ..428 • 28 ..061 061 .050 .050 ..188 llll! ~. sso ..188 1.88 ..062 0t)2 .385 .365 ..354 3 54 .200 .200 ..164 l.&• ..386 386 . 450 .:!S9. 26-50 26SO 8 51-70 51 - 70 13 IJ 71-90 71 - 90 14 91+ 1-10 1- lO 91+ .025 .ozs .600 .600 ~.•oo aBased on on 10 b biologists examining 50 .samp samples of ferrur marrow u-l using color nB,;J~cd t.olog la: c.s ,ex,llffl.lnt ng, ~O t e.i. of tt1D1r ~rrow ing. the color drawings Cheatum (1949). dnawi ngs- of Che.J tum {1 9.49). correct aas,.,~r answers.l . bThc ,.mdcr underlined vatues.. . indicate bt'hc l'lned v111-,h 1nd tC.J1 ce- the t he proportion propo rt ion of of corre.ct Harris (1945), (1945), referring referring to mule mule deer deer (Odo (Odo-Harris coileus hemionus) and white-tailed white-tailed deer coileus h em ionus) and deer (Odocoileus and Riney Riney (1955) refer(Odoco ileus virginianus), virg inianus ) , and (1955) referring to red deer deer (Cervus elaphus) speculated speculated that ring ( Cervus elaphus) that Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Project Project W-38-R W-38-R a Contribution reserves were mobilized in thefollowingorder the following order fat reserves were mobilized as an animal declines in condition: subsubanimal declines in physical physical condition: cutaneous fat, visceral visceral fat, and and femur cutaneous femur marrow marrow fat. estimation of any anyone the If this this is true, true, estimation one of the above deposits by itself itself would not give true above fat deposits would not give a true picture of the the overall overall condition condition of the picture the animal. animal. METHODS METHODS Samples were were obtained obtained from 49 49 male male and and 107 107 Samples female mule mule deer deer killed killed by vehicles female vehicles from a 2020mile segment of Highway Highway 28 Glenwood mile segment 28 between between Glenwood Springs and and Basalt, Basalt, Colorado Colorado,, and and a 20-mile segSprings ment of Highway Highway 13 13 south south of Meeker, ment Meeker, Colorado. Colorado. Collections began November, 1968 1968, and and were were Collections began in November, 1971. The The summer summer ovember, 1971. tterminated erminated in November, months, when when road road kills were were at a minimum minimum, , are months, sparsely represented represented in the the data data (Table (Table 2). sparsely The technique technique described described by Anderson The Anderson and Medin (1965) (1965) was used obtain the KFI, the the used to obtain the KFI Medin procedure for measuring measuring rump rump fat was taken taken from procedure Riney (1955 (1955) and the the percent percent FMF was obtained obtained ) and Riney by using using the the ether ether extraction-gravimetric method. extraction-gravimetric method. femurs were frozen until analysis by the the The femurs were frozen until analysis Colorado Division Research Laboratory Laboratory Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Fort Collins Collins.. at Fort Individual animals animals were one of Individual were assigned assigned to one three age classes tooth replacereplacethree classes on the the basis basis of tooth ment. Animals less than than 12 12 months months old were were conment. Animals less sidered fawns fawns,, animals animals 12 12 months months to 23 months 23 months sidered considered yearlings, yearlings, and and animals animals judged old were were considered judged to be 24 24 months months or older older were were assigned assigned to the the mature age class. class. mature Examination of scatter scatter diagrams ofKFI versus versus Examination diagrams ofKFI and season season revealed revealed overlapping overlapping FMF by sex, age, age, and patterns one season season to the next. This patterns from from one the next. This suggests that that the year-long pattern continuous the year-long pattern is a continuous gests function and and that that each season season represents represents a segfunction ment data from from four four ment of that that function. function. Therefore, Therefore , data seasons are combined combined in Figures Figures 1 through through 4. seasons The data data from both both sexes sexes were were combined combined because The because examination of the the plotted points by sex did not not plotted points examination provide evidence evidence that that the the relationships relationships of the the provide indices were different by sex. indices were different The relationship ofthefawn of the fawn The KFI KFI versus versus FMF relationship age class was the only comparison comparison that that showed showed age the only difference from from yearlings yearlings and and matures matures aa visual visual difference and, therefore, analyzed separately. separately. and, therefore, was analyzed �Table 2. The The seasonal seasonal sample sample size by sex: sex and and age age for Table each physical condition index: index obtained obtained from from mule mule deer deer each phys ical condition killed by killed by vehicles. vehicles , Index Age Class Ace Class . Season Season a 100 10 0 90 80 Sample S Size Saltlf)le i 7.o Mii l e5 Males Females FclJLQ l "s; ~ 70 :al! 0 0 x X KFI ICFI Fawns FaWn.e Yearlings Hatures FMF fMF Fawns ].j 15 6 Spring Spring Summer Summer 5 l1 • Au turrm AUCUfftn 6 Winter Wlnter Spring Spring 9 0o RF Fawns 'it.awns Yearlings 'fe.arllngs- Matures Ma cur~.s w w 0 0 z ~ 60 50 !ct 50 ~ u.; LL Summer SLut200t 2 s Autumn Autumn l Win tter Wi..o e:r Spring Sp,!'ing Summer Sutm.ter 11, 14 16 20 1 77 I1 110 0 AutuITUl Aotu~ 1, 15 Winter Winte-r Spring Sp"C'tng 7 14 14 II ll ;i 5 1 l 5 2 5 s 10 6 Summer Sumner- 2 2 6 j 5 Autumn Au t umn 1 16 Winter Winter I I 21 21 Spring Sp,:ing Summer Summar 0 9 1 Auturrm Aurwmi 2 Win tter Win er Spring Spring Summer Sum<JeT 6 l 0- 17 Au turrm .r'\u t nmn Winter ~i.nt;er Spring Sp r ing Summer Suctmer 4 15 IS J l2 Auturrm AIJr:umn Winter Winter Spring .l;pring Matures 9 4 1 >w 40 w ~ 30 ~ Summer SYffCl.~L Yearlings ~ea r l i.n,S:i nII AutulTU1 Aucumn Win ter Wlnter 2 1 Q J 6 8 2 0o 2 1 l l 2 Autunm Autumn 1 Winter Wiu t cr Spring Sprlng 0 0 9 9 6 Surruner Surnm4:!:r- 0 0 ~ i: 0 0 Rump Fat Fat vs vs.. Kidney Fat Index Index Rump Kidney Fat When measurable amount amount When RF is present present in a measurable mm) the the KFI is related related by the function y = = ((~1 ~ 1 mm) the function 23.2 + + 2.0lX 2.0lX (Fig. (Fig. 1). Although regression is Although the the regression significant (P <.05) the correlation correlation is weak = significant < .05) toe weak (r = absent the 8.96 ±± .52). When When RF is absent the KFI is low, 8.96 2.28 (X ::!: ± 2 S.E S.E.), depleted. In addition, addition, 2.28 .), but but not not depleted. when measurable measurable RF is absent absent the when the KFI KFI of an individual animal (P >.95). >.95). individual animal will be below below 20.7 (P The 95 95 percent percent confidence confidence interval interval of the the RF vs. The KFI regression regression does overlap the 95 percent percent KFI does not overlap the 95 confidence interval of the the mean mean KFI when when RF confidence interval <:: 1 mm, mm, indicating indicating that that while < while RF is depleted depleted some visceral measured KFI)) some visceral fat fat (as meas ured by the the KFI rremains. emains. Rump Fat Fat vs. Femur Femur Marrow Fat Fat Rump When RF is present mm)) tthere When present ((> > 11 mm here is no significant regression regression between and FMF (P significant between RF and >.20) and the FMF values values are relatively high high >.20) and .1_he are relatively S.E.) (Fig. 2). It It can be said said 78.3 ±± 3.2 (X ±± 2 S.E.) (Fig. 2). (P> .95) that particular animal animal the (P > .95) that for any any particular the FMF 62 percent percent if measurable measurable RF is above 62 will be above present. When When RF is absent absent the shows high high present. the FMF shows 30 Fig. 1. 1. Linear Linear regression regression of RF measurements measurements vs. Fig. of RF vs. the the KFI ~ 1 mm and frequency frequency distribution KFI when when RF > mm and distribution of KFI classes classes when RF <. 1 mm. mm. Fawns Fawns, , yearlings, yearlings, and and KFI when RF< matures are included in the the sample. sample. (Graph by matures are included (Graph Graphic Arts, Arts, Colorado Colorado Stat Statee University University) ) Graphic variability ranging frQ.m from 1.7 to 84.4 percent variability ranging percent with a mean mean of 42.8 .:±: ± 8.2 (X ± 2 S.E.). S.E.). From the the information information contained contained in Figure Figure 2 From with RF present in any it is apparent apparent that that with RF present in any amount the the FMF percent percent is ~·elatively relatively constant constant amount high value. This shows shows that that depth depth of rump rump at a high value. This depleted before before the the percentage percentage of fat fat in fat is depleted femur marrow. marrow. femur 100 100 aWithin equinox equinox and solstiCQ solstice dates: = Sept. Sept. 2.3 23-Dec. 22; winter; winter .... = .,.\./lthi.n i.1aCr:S; autumn = -nc.c. 22: Dec. 21; spring spring = Mar Mar.. 22 22-June 21; aummer surrnner = June June 22-Scpt,. 22-Sept. 22. Dec. 23-Mar. 23 -M.t1r . 21; ..,.. -.run~ 2lj ~ 22, RESULTS ' 10 25 5 IQ 115 5 20 RUMP FAT (mm) I No. DEER WITH RF< RF < Imm RUMP (mm)/No. . . .•••• ..... . 90 • I •• 80 ~ 70 '# ~ ti LL I.: 60 ~ ~ a: 50 Q: a: Q: 50 « <l ::E 40 :I! a: :, :J ::E 30 w IL. u.. 20 r5 10 10 0 0 10 15 25 5 10 1 5 20 25 RF< Imm Imm RUMP FAT (mm}/No. (mm)/No. DEER WITH RF< 30 Fig. 2. Scatter Scatter diagram diagram of RF measurements plotted Fig. measurements plotted against FMF FMF percent and frequency distribution of against percent and frequency distribution of FMF percent classes RF < 1 mm. Fawns, yearyearFMF percent classes when when. RF< mm . Fawns, lings, and and matures matures are are included sample. (Graph (Graph included in the the sample. lings, by Graphic Graphic Arts, State University) University) Arts, Colorado Colorado State Femur Marrow Marrow Fat Fat vs. Kidney Kidney Fat Index Femur Fat Index Yearlings and and matures matures -Figure - Figure 3 shows shows that tha:t Yearlings when the the KFI KFI is greater greater than than 20 20 the the FMF FMF is conwhen consistently high with no significant significant (P> .20) regresregressistently high with (P> .20) �sion. The mean S.E. is 82.8 82.8 ±: ± 3.0 3.0 and the i:;ion. mean ±± 2 S.E. lower 95 percent confidence limit for individual individual lower 95 percent confidence values is 66.3, 66.3, therefore, therefore, for an individual individual animal animal values with KFI KFI>> 20 20 the the FMF for that that animal will be 66.3 or greater greater (P (P>.95). 66.3 >.95 ). When 10 <KFI -< KFI < < 20 decreases sigWhen 10 20 the the FMF decreases nificantly (P < <: .05) .05) to 73.1 73.1 :!:. ± 4.0 4.0 (X ::t: ± 2 S.E.) nificantly with the 95 percent confidence limit with the lower 95 percent confidence limit for an individual value 52.3. Ass the the KFI decreases decreases to individual value at 52.3. 10 or less the the ~rresponding ~rresponding FMF values average 10 value average 43.3 ± ± 10.48 10.48 (X :!:. ± 2 S.E S.E.) 43.3 .) which which differs signifiignificantly (P < <. .05) .05) from the FMF mean 73.l. mean of 73.1. cantly The relationship relationship between The between FMF and the KFI seen in Figure Figure 3 is very similar to that that obas seen ery similat tained Ransom (1965) (1965) for white-tailed l>y Ransom white-tailed deer. tained by The interpretation interpretation of Figure Figure 3 indicates that FMF indicates that remains consistently consistently high high when the KFI is above when the remains 20 but but does not values until 20 not drop to low values until the the KFI 10. This is supportive supportive evidence evidence that that visis below 10. reserves (as measured measured by the the KFI) are ceral fat reserves nearly deple depleted before the reserves of the the fat reserves the nearly ted before femur marrow marrow are mobilized mobilized to any great great extent. extent. femur 100 100 •• • ,, .. .. 70 ~ ~ ..- •. • •••• 6060 • :,l! 0 0~ • • •• ••• • • • • • •• •• •• • • • .' ,•... • ••• •• • r• 90 80 ... • • • .., ••• • a:: a: a:: 50 a: <l <X ~ 40 :E a:: a: :::), ::::> 30 ~ 30:E ~ ~ 2020 • • • •• .,•"" • • 10 1 10• 0O+---r-T"""""--r-r-....---,-,....---r--r---; ---,..---,--~---,----.,-.......- . - ---r-"T"'"'--1 • o 0 100 100 90 • • • :,l! ,. ~ #. 00 • • # 70 • • ~~ • -i ••••• ~ 60 3: 0 0 • • • •• a:: 50 - ••• a: •• a:: a: <l <X •• •• •• ~ 40 ~40 • a:: a: • ::, ::::> • 30- ••• ~ 30 :E l.LI I.LI • l.L. lJ... • 20 •• • • 10 •• 10 8080 • , ., ..... . • • - --.,- - - - . , --.----.-~ o0 -t--'•--,•.___,, • ~ , ---r-...-,.... o0 10 10 20 30 40 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 u: LI: ~ ~ 0 0 depleted (Fig. 1). From From Figure Figure 2 it is appardepleted first (Fig. ent that subcutaneous subcutaneous fat reserves reserves are depleted depleted ent that before values begin decline. The visbegin to decline. before the FMF values ceral fat reserves, reserves, as measured measured by the KFI, the KFI, ceral decline to a relatively relatively low value value of 20 decline 20 before before any noticeable decline in FMF is observed observed (Fig. noticeable decline (Fig. 3). reliable evidence evidence that that FMF is not This is fairly reliable mobilized at at least least until until the the bulk the visceral bulk of the visceral mobilized and subcutaneous subcutaneous fat reserves reserves have have been been utilized. utilized. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 10 KIDNEY FAT INDEX % Fig. 3, 3. Scatter Scatter diagram KFI plotted against FMF FMF perperFig. diagram of KFI plotted against cent yearling and and mature mule deer. deer. (Graph (Graph by cent of yearling mature mule Graphic Arts Arts, , Colorado Colorado State State University) University) Graphic Fawns -The - The striking striking difference difference in the Fawns the relationship the KFI and and FMF F:MF for fawns tionship between between the compared to yearlings yearlings and matures matures is that that the the compared majority oE of the points points fall in the the area below 20 20 majority and 80 80 on the the KFI KFI and FMF F:MFscales, respectively, and scales, respectively, For KFI KFI values values greater greater than 20 the the than 20 (Fig. 4). For F:MFwill exceed 43.3 percent (P (P:>.95). FMF will exceed 43.3 percent > .95) . DISCUSSION DISCUSSION It appears appears that that subcutaneous subcutaneous (RF) (RF) and and visIl (KFI) are mobilized mobilized concurconcurceral fat reserves reserves (KFI) rently but that subcutaneous reserves are rently but that subcutaneous fat reserves KIDNEY FAT INDEX % Fig. Scatter diagram diagram of KFI KFI plotted against FMF FMF perperFig. 4. Scatter plotted against cent of fawn fawn mule mule deer. deer. (Graph Graphic Arts, cent ( Graph by Graphic Arts , ColoColorado State State University) University) rado The practical importance importance of the relationship The practical the relationship condition indices indices is that three physical physical condition that of these these three picture of the fat reserves reserves of an animal animal a true true picture cannot be determined determined by measuring measuring only only one of cannot indicators. If the investigator is interested interested the indicators. the investigator only in the the lower lower end of the physical condition the physical condition scale then indicator would most useusethen the the FMF indicator would be most scale The KFI would be more more useful than RF ful. The useful than measurements to monitor monitor physical condition at measurements physical condition the the scale mostly mostly because it prothe upper upper end of the because it continuous data data and lacks zero values. values. vides continuous ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation extended to Gary T. Myers Appreciation is extended for initiating initiating the the early early work on on this evaluation, this evaluation, and to William H. Rutherford, Rutherford, Harold Harold M. M. Swope Swope, and Allen Anderson, and Dr. Lee E. Yeager Yeager for Allen E. Anderson, the manuscript. manuscript. Charles Charles Merrell, Merrell, critical review of the Dillinger, Dennis Ken Dillinger, Dennis Money, and William B. Zimmerman assisted assisted with collections. . Dr_ Dr. Zimmerman with field collections Elmer Remmenga Remmenga of the Statistical Laboratory, Elmer the Statistical Laboratory Colorado State State University, University, provided statistical Colorado provided statistical consultation. consultation. �LITER A TIJRE CITED LITERATURE Anderson, Anderson, A. E., and and D. E. Medin. 1965. 1965. Two condition condition indices indices of the Cache Cache la Poudre Poudre mule mule deer deer herd herd and and their their application application to managemanagement. ment. Colo. Colo. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Dept., Dept., Game Inform. Inform. Leafl. Leaf!. No. 23, 23, 3 p. ___ and D. C. Bowden. Bowden. 1972. 1972. In- - ," - - - ," and carcass fat in a Colorado Colorado mule mule deer deer dices of carcass population. population. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 36(2):579-594. 36(2):579-594. Cheatum, Cheatum, E. L. 1949. 1949. Bone Bone marrow marrow as anindex an index of malnutrition malnutrition in deer. deer. New York ConservaConservationist tionist 3(5):19-22. 3(5):19-22. Harris, Harris, D. 1945. 1945. Symptoms Symptoms of malnutrition malnutrition in deer. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 9(4):319-322. 9(4):319-322. Neiland, Neiland, K. P,.. A. 1970. 1970. Weight Weight of dried dried marrow marrow as an indicator indicator of fat fat in in caribou caribou femurs. femurs. JJ.. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 34(4):904-907. 34(4):904-907. Ransom, Ransom, A. B. 1965. 1965. Kidney Kidney and and marrow marrow fat as indicators indicators of white-tailed white-tailed deer deer condition. condition. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 29(2):397-398. 29(2):397-398. Riney, freeRiney, T. 1955. 1955. Evaluating Evaluating conditfon condition of freeranging ranging red red deer deer (Cervus (Cervus elaphus), elaphus), with with spespecial reference reference to New New Zealand. Zealand. New Zealand Zealand J. of Science Science and and Technology Technology 3B(4):429-463. 36(4):429-463. ___ ,. 1960. 1960. A field technique technique for assessing assessing physical physical condition condition of some some ungulates. ungulates. J. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 23(1):92-94. 23(1):92-94. Verme, ., and Holland. 1973. Verme, L. JJ., and J.C. J. C.Holland. 1973. ReagentReagentdry assay assay of marrow marrow fat in white--tailed white-tailed deer. deer. JJ.. Wildl. Wild!. Mgmt. 37(1):103-105. 37(1):103-105. Thomas Thomas M. M. Pojar Pojar Assistant Assistant Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher and and Dale F. Reed Wildlife Research,er Researcher �- . DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURC ES DIVISION OF WILDLIF E Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game .~ , , I\~ ,". . I ~ c. \,.;"" .. '- ! ~ Number 97 Number GUIDELINES FOR FOR ESTIMATING ESTIMATING DEER DEER NUMBERS GUIDELINES NUMBERS IN CONNECTION WITH CLAIMS OF DAMAGE TO GROWING CROPS CROPS!1 CONNECTION Colorado farmers can claim compensation far mers can compensation State, under under statute, from the State, statute, for deer damage damage to growing crop crops.. During During investigation investigation of such such growing fieldmen are 1·equired required cases, Division of Wildlife fieldmen estimate the number animals, primarily primarily number of animals, to estimate mule deer, reportedly causing the damage. damage. reportedly causing Although estimation particularly Although estimation may not seem a particularly difficult task, task, consistency consistency in counting counting procedure procedure difficult desirable to reduce bias bias and exaggerated is desirable and exaggerated This Leaflet Leaflet describes describes some weekly and claims. This and hourly patterns patterns of deer occurrence occurrence on alfalfa hourly alfalfa presents guidelines guidelines for estimation fields and and presents estimation of numbers. deer numbers. METHODS METHODS Deer count data from three three areas count data areas in western western Colorado were gathered during the course of gathered during research investigations investigations of deer grazing grazing effects on research alfalfa product.ion. production. The areas areas and and years years of data data alfalfa collection utilized are Billy Creek State' State'Wildlife Wildlife Area County) - 1959 1959 (Boyd 1960), 1960), Area (Montrose County) 1. Herd of mule deer on alfalfa alfalfa field near near Little Hills Fig. 1. Experiment S~tion. Station, Game Experiment ----------_._-----------Contribution W-38-R. Co11t rib11tion from from Federal Federa./ Aid Aid Project Project W-38-R. 11 Little Hills Game Game Experiment Experiment Station Station (Rio BlanLittle 1) - 1967 1967 (Gordon 1968), 1968), and co County) (Fig. 1) and State Recreation Recreation Area (Garfield CounRifle Gap State Area (Garfield 1961 and and 1968-71 1968-71(Boyd 1963;Gordon 1969, (Boyd 1963; Gordon 1969, ty) - 1961 1970; Gordon Gordon and and Bartmann Bartmann 1971; 1971; and and Bart1970; mann 1972). 1972). mann general counting counting procedure procedure was similar in The general was similar arrived at the study study all three three areas. areas. An observer observer arrived at the scheduled count, which which field before the first first scheduled usually began the evening. evening. Counts Counts were usually began early early in the then made made at at hourly hourly or half-hourly half-hourly intervals then intervals through all or part ofthe dark hours hours with with the aid through part of the dark binoculars and and a spotlight. spotlight. of binoculars There was considerable considerable variation hours There variation in in the the hours that deer were counted, counted, both both among areas and and that among areas among years years on the same same area. area. To maintain maintain among consistency and and gain gain maximal maximal utilization utilization of the the consistency available data, data, comparisons comparisons of weekly trends trends are available based on the the mean mean of three three counts counts made made at at 9, 10, 10, based and 11 11p.m. (MST).Counts at these these hours may not and p.m. (MST). Counts at hours may best represent areas, but suitable best represent all areas, but were found suitable ofthe data came. most of the data for Rifle Gap, from where most damage to alfalfa alfalfa is reported reported during during Most deer damage and May, prior prior to deer migration, migration, with with April and claims being being made later in the summer fewer claims made later summer during August August and and September. September. Accordingly, Accordingly, data data during are presented presented for each period. types of deer occurrence occurrence patterns patterns are also Two types considered, weekly (the change change in deer numbers numbers considered, through the the spring and late late summer) summer) and and hourly through spring and hourly numbers through through the night).. (the change change in deer numbers the night) DEER COUNTING COUNTING GUIDELINES GUIDELINES DEER Based limited data, data, the the weekly and and hourly hourly Based on limited patterns occurrence on alfalfa alfalfa fields patterns of deer occurrence appear generally generally similar similar between areas and appear between areas and years. The variations their timing timing are most most years. variations in their influenced by weather and may may necessitate necessitate likely influenced weather and some adaptations the following guidelines: guidelines: adaptations of the 1. Count Count deer at least least once weekly during the 1. during the period damage damage is reported. reported. Continue Continue countsame night(s) night(s) eac each week as preing on the same scheduled counts counts will help help reduce reduce bias bias in in scheduled estimating deer numbers. numbers. estimating �2. Count Count once once at at the the hour hour when when the the maximum maximum number number of deer can can usually usually be expected expected and and continue continue counting counting at at that that hour hour for the the duration ofthe the reported reported damage damage period. period. This This time time will probably probably be from 7 p.m. to 8 p.m. (MST) during during spring spring and and from 9p,m. 9 p.m. to 12midnight 12midnight (MST) during during late late summer. summer. 3. 3. Count Count with with the the aid of binoculars binoculars and and use use a spotlight spotlight after after dusk. dusk. 4. Count Count at at the the scheduled scheduled time time regardless regardless of weather, weather, except except that that if visibility visibility is seriously seriously impaired impaired by by precipitation, precipitation, dust, dust, etc., count count as soon as visibility visibility improves improves the the same same night, night, or at at the the proper proper time time the the following following night. night. In the the latter latter case, case, the the following following week's week's count count should should be made made according according to the the original original schedule. schedule. 5. Count Count only only those those deer actually actually on the the field. Adjustments Adjustments may may have have to be be made made for for animals animals spooked spooked by the the observer's observer's arrival, arrival, but but other other exceptions exceptions should should not not be made. made. 6. Calculate Calculate the the mean mean number number ofdeer per per night night by adding adding all counts counts and and dividing dividing by the the number number of counts. counts. This This mean, mean, multiplied multiplied by the the number number of days days in in the the reported reported damage damage period, yields yields the the total total number number of deer-nights deer-nights use for for a particular particular area. area. The The calculated calculated mean mean number number of deer per night night is more appropriately appropriately a mean mean maximum maximum number number as the the counts counts are are made made at at or near near the the hour hour of peak peak deer abundance. abundance. This This may may not not represent represent true true deer but in in lieu of additional additional information information it use, but appears appears the the best best compromise compromise to offer the the landlandowner. owner. Data Data were not not presented presented for the the period period June June through through July July as damage damage claims claims then then were almost almost non-existent. However, non-existent. However, weekly and and hourly hourly patterns patterns of deer occurrence occurrence during during this this interval interval closely resembled resembled those those for late late summer summer and and more closely counting counting times times should should probably probably be the the same. same. Similar data data concerning concerning trends trends in in deer deer Similar numbers numbers for other other crops crops are are not not available, available, but but these these guidelines guidelines can can be followed followed to estimate estimate numbers numbers of deer foraging foraging on other other crops until until we have reason reason to adopt adopt other other guidelines. guidelines. have DEER DEER OCCURRENCE OCCURRENCE PATTERNS PATTERNS Spring Spring -- Weekly The The weekly deer occurrence occurrence pattern pattern in in spring spring is typical of that that on meadowlands meadowlands where where deer typical congregate congregate prior prior to migration migration. . There There is is an an increase crease in in deer numbers numbers as plant plant growth growth begins, begins, followed by a peak peak which which may mayoror may may not not be be prolonged, prolonged, and and then then a decline decline in in numbers numbers as the the deer migrate. migrate. Variations Variations in in timing timing and and duration duration each phase phase can can occur among among areas, areas, as of each suggested suggested in in Figure Figure 2. However, Billy Billy Creek and and Little Little Hills Hills are are each each represented represented by only only one year's year's data, data, so area area differences differences there there may may mostly mostly be annual annual variation, variation, as is shown shown for Rifle Rifle Gap in Figure Figure 3. Selection Selection of counting counting hours hours used to to calculate calculate means means may may also affect affect depicted depicted area area differences. differences. 80 80 ••••••••• BILLY CREEIH959 CREEJ(-1959 •• •• ••••• Bil.LY ------ - - - - - LITTLE LITTLE Hll.LS-1967 HILLS-1967 o:: It: 70 70 1968-71 -- - RIFLE RFLE GAPGAP-I968-71 41 LLI ~ 60 ~60 I.I.. L&.. 0°50 50 0:: It: ~ 40 ~40 2! ~ ~ ~ 30 30 zz t5-t2O LLI 20 ~ ~ 10 •--•--....... , -- --5-1112-1819-2526-2 ·II 12-1819·2526-2 3-9 -+--+- MAY -+-, -+ .lJHE 1-7 1-7 8-K 8-14 15·21 15-2122-2829-4 APRL APRL MAY .ulE WEEK WEEK Fig. Fig. 2. 2. Weekly trend trend in deer deer numbers numbers during during spring spring on on three three alfalfa alfalfa .fields fields in in western western Colorado. Colorado. 130 130 _,. 120 120 I \ 110 I ; 100 100 !~ ------- 1969 -- - 1970 1970 .-.-.-- · - 1971 1971 --· i i \ I j 90 ~ 90 80 ~ ~ 80 zz / ! It: ;~ 70 22 ::> 60 ::::> 60 ......... 1968 ·········1968 _; i I i I ; ! I ; I J ... A 50 50 2 2 40 40 ./ \ ,';' (~" ~ \ I 30 30 20 IO 10 , I \ \ t \ \ \ I • .. --lf-JUNt -+- 8-14 15-2122-28 15-2122-28 29-4 29-4 S-11 !HI 12-ifJ 12-.a 19·2S 19-2526-2 3-i9 1-7 8-M 26-2 3· APRIL -t-+- MAY MAY JUNE WEEK WEEK trend in in deer deer numbers numbers during during spring spring on on the the Fig. 3. Weekly trend Rifle Gap alfalfa alfalfa field. field. L ate Summer Late Summer -- Weekly Data Data for weekly occurrence occurrence patterns patterns during during the the late late summer summer are are limited limited to Rifle Gap Gap and and are are mostly mostly incomplete incomplete (Fig. 4). During During this this period, period, use is is mostly mostly by local deer populations populations and and the the large large weekly umhers seen weekly fluctuations fluctuations inn in numbers seen in in the the spring spring may may not not take take place. �ffi 50 50 w 1LI Late Late Summer Summer - Hourly Hourly During late summer, hourly peak During late summer, the the hourly peak in in deer deer numbers numbers at at Rifle Gap Gap occurred occurred several several hours hours later later than reason for this than in spiring spring (Fig. 7). The The reason this is unknown, unknown, but but we would would rule rule out out a direct direct relationship relationship to sunset sunset as as the the difference difference in in sunset sunset times from 13pring spring to late late summer summer is generally generally less less than than one hour. hour. .•_ •• - 11961 961 --- - 1970 1970 00 - o040 40 · · - 1971 -_._.·- - - 1971 ~ ~ a: 30 0::30 ~ It! 2220 20 izi 10 z <( ct ILi 1LI 22 29-4' I l2-l819·2!5 23·2930-6 29-4 !H ~-II 12~819-~ 26·1 26-1 2-8 16-22 16-2223-2930-6 JOLY-!AUGUST ......tf- SEPTt:MBER JULY-+AUGUST SEPTEMBER -+-OCTOBER -+-OCTOBER -+- WEEK WEEK 30 ._ ·· .. -- 1961 1961 ·- ar:: Fig. 4... 4. Weekly trend trend in deer deer numbers numbers during during late summer summer on on th thee Rifle Gap Gap alfalfa alfalfa field. -1970 -1970 ffi ~~ ~ ~ 20 20 ct: Spring Spring - Hourly Hourly The The hourly hourly trend trend in deer numbers numbers during during spring spring is similar similar among among areas areas (Fig. 5). The The less dis tinct trend distinct trend for Little Little Hills Hills may may be related related to low deer nnumbers, umbers, although although a slight slight peak peak is still still evident evident in early early evening. evening. Except Except for different different deer densities, h e three densities, tthe three hourly hourly deer occurrence occurrence patterns patterns shown for Rifle Gap were similar similar during during each hree years, hers peaking each of tthree years, with with deer num numbers peaking at at 8 p.m. (MST) and and declining declining afterwards afterwards (Fig. 6). 6). 0::60 ~. ••••••••• BIU..Y BILLY CRE£K· CREEK -19!S9 ••••••••• l9!59 ----- - - LITTLE LITTLE HILLSHILLS-I967 --1967 1968-70 --- - RIFLE RIFLE GAPGAP-I968-7O f···. f -. ~50 ~40 0:: l:I:l30 2 ~20 ~ • 10 _ ..•. - ...--~-_ ..•.........• -... __ ,.._,.__◄-- ...... - ..... _ ... I&J 2 678910 1112123456 10111212 PM-;,.-AM PM""""'!-AM HOUR (MST) (MST) HOUR Hourly trend trend in deer nnumbers during sspring three Fig. 5. Hou.rly umbers during pring on three alfalfa alfalfa fields in western western Colorado. 80 ....... 1968 ·······1968 a: IS 70 70 ~~6060 1969 ------- 1969 -1970 -1970 ~ lL 0o a: 50 o::ro ~ 40 ~40 :IE 2 :::, ::J zZ 30 30 ~ 20 w w :i 20 ::i 10 10 :! :" " I .. ,,-- -- ...- ..•.. -..•... .••..••... - ..•-- .• _ .....••......... •••.,.A 66789toll1212 7 8 9 .••••..••.. !01112 1 PM-toolM PM-+-AM HOUR (MST) (MST) Pig. Fig. 6. 6. Hourly Hourly trend trend in deer numbers numbers during during spring spring on the Hitle Rifle Gap alfalfa alfalfa field field.. Ii ii 10 ;; 667891011121 7 8 9IO U 12 1 PM . - + 4M PM-+-AM HOUR HOUR (MST) (MST) Fig. 7. Hou.rly-trend in deer numbers Fig. Hourly trend deer numbers during during late late summer summer on the Rifle lfalfa field. Rifle Ga1p Gap aalfalfa LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Evaluation Evaluation of the the effects effects of spring-summer spring-summer grazing grazing by deer on alfalfa. alfalfa. Colo. DiY. Wildl., Game Div. Wild!., Game Res. Rept. Rept. 3:111-133. 3:111-133. Boyd, R. R. JJ.. 1960. Methods Methods of evaluating evaluating deer deer and and elk dama,ge damage to alfalfa alfalfa in in the the spring. spring. Colo. Dept. Dept. Game and art. Rept. 3:59-68. and Fish, Fish, Qu Quart. 3:59-68. ____ . 1963. 1963. Methods Methods of evaluating evaluating deer deer and and elk _ use of aalfalfa llfalfa under under ssummer-long ummer-long use. Colo. Dept. Ga1me Game and and Fish, Fish, Game Game Res. Rept. 1:39-42. 1:39-42. Gordon, D D... F. 1968. Evaluation Evaluation of of deer deer use on alfalfa under under different different irrigation irrigatiQn rates. rates. Colo. alfalfa Div. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks, Parks, Game Game Res. Rept. Rept. 3:309-322. 3:309-322. _ the effects ____ .. 196,9. 1969. Evaluation Evaluation of the effects of springspringsumJTIergrazing deer on alfalfa. alfalfa. Colo. Div. sumµier 1grazing by deer Game, es. Rept. Game, Flish Fish and and Parks, Parks, Game Game R Res. Rept. 3:253:2543. Evaluation of the the effects effects of springspring_____ .. 1970. Evaluation summer by deer on alfalfa. summer grazing grazing by alfalfa. Colo. Div. Game, Game, Fi.sh Fish and and Parks, Parks, Game Game Res. Rept. 3:2173:217249. 249. Gordon, Gordon, D. F., and and R. M. Bartmann. Bartmann. 1971. Evaluati,on Evaluation of the the effects effects of of spring-summer spring-summer grazing lby by deer deer on alfalfa. alfalfa. Colo. Div. Game, Game, grazing Fish Fish and and Parks, Parks, Game Game Res. Rept. 3:97-112. 3:97-112. Richard Richard M M.. Bartmann Bartmann Wildlife Researcher Researcher July July 1974 1974 El '°"IHTlHG ~ PRINTING ANDP\MLU:ATION:. AND PUBLICATIONS IiiiI COLO~AOOSTAff COLORADO STATE 1JINIV£MITY UNIVERSITY ft.ii' 11176 11176 ��- --~~~ts~(_:- Q@d~qr~ acts ,.9~~0· ",:~, ;\.;~ 11-~/-, -. ~ ~-------.--. '--:::------- .. ~ ~~ - "' --- ~ _ .-if' ,,,...-;; ~ i • .__..,,r j '- ~ ~ ~ '--.~ . ~ .... -, . -r~ • J" - ~ ·_,;1 ~?--:::llIt.---- ...... . , __ /"' PUBL(sHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COL-;RADO COLORADO -~...\ -gl DEPARTM ENT OF DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION OF OF WILDLI WILDLIFE .§f, DIVISION FE Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet J.,~, V·. '.' ~. ' ( I, / ~ ~ -· ,I , • ~t; • umber98 umber 98 POSTMORTEM POSTMORTEM THIGH THIGH TEMPERATURES TEMPERATURES IN MULE DEER DEER!1 Determination Determination of the the time time a deer was was killed is sometimes sometimes important important to a wildlife agency. agency. A reliable reliable estimate estimate of the the time of death death can can provide provide information information related related to research research efforts, court court evidence, or a basis basis for further further investigation. investigation. Gill and and O'Meara O'Meara (1965) (1965) found found that, that, of several several postmortem mortem characteristics, characteristics, the the carcass carcass temperature temperature is the best best single single indicator indicator of time of death death in white-tailed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus (Odocoileus virginianus). virginianus). This This Leaflet Leaflet gives the the results results of a Colorado Colorado study study made made of postmortem postmortem thigh thigh temperatures temperatures of 35 vehicle-killed vehicle-killed mule deer (Odocoileus (Odocoileus hemionus) hemionus) to establish time establish a method method for estimating estimating the time deer were killed. METHODS Several Several hundred hundred deer were picked up from from the the highway in the course of a deer-vehicle deer-vehicle accident accident highway study during during 1968 through through 1970. 1970. Motorists, Motorists, the the study Colorado Colorado State State Patrol, Patrol, or officials officials who shot shot the the injured animals animals reported reported times times of death death for 35 injured deer. These 35 were used for postmortem postmortem observations vations of thigh thigh temperatures. temperatures. One, 3, 3, 5, 5, 10, 10, 14, 14, and and 2 animals animals were collected during during November, November, December, January, January, February, February, March, March, and and April, respectively. respectively. No collections collections were made made during during the the late late spring, spring, summer, summer, or early early fall because he relatively high because of tthe relatively high ambient ambient temperatures. temperatures. All animals animals were intentionally intentionally left whole for the the entire entire observation observation period period.. Most carcasses were picked picked up promptly promptly from kill sites sites carcasses and and transported transported 5-10 5-10 miles to an an area area near near Glenwood Springs Springs for observations. observations. All deer were placed placed on their their sides on bare bare ground ground or snow and were not, in most most cases, cases, moved again again during during and observations. observations. No conscious conscious effort effort was made made to place the carcasses carcasses in a shaded shaded area. area. The skin skin of the the inner inner side of the the hind hind leg was was cut at at approximately approximately the the midpoint midpoint of a line line between between the femur-tibia femur-tibia joint joint and and the anus. anus. Pocket meat meat thermometers thermometers (range (range O 0 - 120°F) or Pocket Weston dial dial testing testing thermometers thermometers (range (range 25 inserted 3-4 3-4 inches inches into into the thigh thigh 125°F) were inserted Con tribution from from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-38-R. W·38·R. 1'Contribution Fig. 1. meat thermometer into the 1. A pocket meat thermometer is inserted inserted into the thigh thigh muscle from the the inner inner side side of the the hind hind leg. Care Care must must be taken to place place the thermometer thermometer bulb near near the the center center of oftbe taken the muscle mass temperature) mass (.the (the portion portion with with the the highest highest temperature) (quadriceps). The The thermometer thermometer shafts shafts muscle (quadriceps). pressed down down at at approximately approximately a 45 degree degree were pressed angle the thigh angle to the inner inner surface surface of the thigh (Fig. 1). 1). Care was taken the bulb the center taken to place place the bulb near near the center of the muscle, mass, which muscle mass, which is the the portion portion with with the the highest highest temperature. temperature. Temperatures Temperatures were taken taken after death death as possible, possible, and and at at 44-to as soon after to 6-hour intervals until until the the ambient ambient temperature temperature was intervals was approached the approached. . In In addition, addition, the ambient ambient temperature (°F) (OF) was was recorded recorded to the the nearest nearest temperature degree each time the thigh temperature temperature was each time the thigh was taken. Live Live weights weights were taken 300· taken. taken with with a 300pound-capacity pound-capacity (Chatillon) (Chatillon) scale scale and and recorded recorded to the the nearest nearest pound. pound. RESULTS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION DISCUSSION polynomial in time time was was fitted fitted by least least A cubic pollynomial squares thigh temperature temperature rec.:ord squares to the the thigh record of each each 2 animal. The The range range of R R2, the coefficient coefficient of animal. , the multiple polynomials was multiple correlation, correlation, for the the 35 polynomials was �105 105 -, " '\ \ 95 95 85 u.. !~, ·-, 75 75 UJ w 0:: a: ::) => !;;x ~ 0: a: a.. a. :i: ::!: w """-.... 65 65 UJ w It- 55 55 45 45 35 35 25 0 44 88 12 12 16 16 20 20 24 24 28 28 32 32 HOURS HOURS Fig. Fig. 2. 2. Mean Mean postmortem postmortem mule deer deer thigh thigh temperatures temperatures with with 95 percent percent confidence confidence that that 86 percent percent of of temperature$ temperatures are are within within maximum maximum and and minimum minimum ranges. ranges. The dashed dashed porportion tion of the the curve was fitted fitted by by eye. 0.9889 to 0.9999 with with a range range of the the standard standard 0.9889 error error of estimate estimate from 0.36 to 3.34 degrees. degrees. The thigh thigh temperatures temperatures of each each deer were plotted plotted versus the corresponding versus time along along with with the corresponding cubic polynomial. This This relationship relationship revealed revealed a consisconsispolynomial. tent he thigh tent underestimation underestimation of tthe thigh temperatures temperatures during the time time interval interval from 0 to 66 hours hours after after during death. death. The The fitted fitted curve curve was was adjusted adjusted by fitting fitting a smooth curve curve by eye to the the data data in in the the time smooth inter'Val interval from death death until until 6 hours hours later. later. The The smooth smooth curve curve joined joined the the cubic polynomial polynomial before before 88 hours hours after after death. death. The The thigh thigh temperatures temperatures for each each deer were predicted predicted from the the adjusted adjusted curve curve at at each each 4-hour interval interval after after death. death. The mean, mean, minimum, and and maximum maximum values values of the the predicted predicted minimum, thigh temperatures temperatures for for the the 35 deer were deterthigh mined at at the the end end of each each 4-hour 4-hour interval interval until until 32 mined hours after after death death (Fig. 2). 2). Prior Prior to 32 hours hours after after hours death, all all thethigh the thigh temperature temperature curvesshoweda curves showed a death, monotonic monotonic decreasing decreasing trend trend toward toward the the afterafterdeath death mean mean ambient ambient temperature temperature for the 32-hour 32-hour period. Nonparametric Nonparametric tolerance tolerance intervals intervals were constructed structed using using the the minimum minimum and and maximum maximum predicted predicted thigh thigh temperatures temperatures for each each 4-hour interval. With With a random random sample sample of 35 deer, one interval. can can be be g,5 916 percent percent confident confident that that at at least least 86 8·6 percent percent of the the predicted predicted thigh thigh temperatures temperatures are are between between the the given given maximum maximum and and minimum minimum values values (Dixon (Dixon and and Massey Massey 1969:563, Table Table A25b). Si.Jmilarly, that another Similarly, the the probability probability that another deer, obtained randomly from from the the same populaobtained randomly same population, has has its its thigh thigh temperature temperature between between the the bands bands in ·Figure Figure 2 at at a given given time time is 0.943. It It is obvious obvious from from Figure Figure 2 that that all all deer deer do not not cool at at the the same same rate rate following following death. death. The The mean mean (±SD) thigh thigh temperature temperature (°F) (OF) of 18 mule mule deer deer whose thigh temperatures were taken taken within thigh temperatures within 30 minutes was 102.04 minutes of death death was 102.04 ± ± 1.11 degrees. degrees. The The minimum minimum and and maximum maximum values values were were 100.0 and and 103.5, 103.5, respectively. respectively. Thus, Thus, one one is 95 percent percent confident dent that that 76 percent percent of deer temperatures temperatures fall between between Jl00.0 100.0 and and 103.5 within within 0.5 hour hour after after death. death. The The thigh thigh temperature temperature should should be a function function of the body weight, and other the ambient ambient temperature, temperature, body weight, and other factors the correlation factors no1 nott studied. studied. For For instance, instance, the correlation between between the the predicted predicted thigh thigh temperatures temperatures and and the the mean mean ambient ambient temperatures temperatures 32 hours hours after after death death was was r = = 0.54 (p = = 0.001), while while the the correlatio:n body weights the correlation between between the the body weights and and the predicted predicted thip;h thigh temperatures temperatures 32 hours hours after after death death wa:s was r = 0.38 (p<0.05). (p<0.05). While F'igure Figure 2 does not take take enough enough variables variables into into account account to enable enable one to state state precisely precisely how long long a mule mule deer has has been been dead, dead, it can can help help to narrow possible time providing one narrow the the possible time of death death providing has a deer similar similar to the mean (±SD) (±SD) weight has the mean weight (101.8 lb)that mean (101.8± ± 28.5 28.5Ib) that was was exposed exposed to similar similar mean (±SD) ambient temperatures (30.2 ± 7.4 degrees) ambient temperatures degrees) prior thigh prior to 32 hours hours after after death. death. For For example, example, thigh temperatti.res temperatures taken taken 4 and and 8 hours hours after after death death are are likely to be similar, similar, but unlikely tto similar to likely but unlikely o be similar those taken taken 20 to 32 hours hours after after death; death; also, a deer deer those which which has has been been dead dead 4 hours hours can can be reliably reliably distinguished from from one which which has has been dead 12 distinguis:hed been dead hours on the the basis basis of thigh thigh temperatures. temperatures. to 32 hours ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank thank R. Alldredge Alldredge for computer computer programWe programming ming and and A. E. Anderson, Anderson, H. M. Swope, Swope, and and Dr. 0. O. B. Cop, Copee for editorial editorial assistance. assistance. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Dixon, Dixon, W,. W. J., J., and and F. J. J. Massey, Massey, Jr. Jr. 1969. IntroIntroduction duction to statistical statistical analysis. analysis. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill Book Co. 3rd Edition. Edition. 638pp. Gill, J. D., and and D, D. C. O'Meara. O'Meara. 1955. 1965. Estimating Estimating time time of death death in in white-tailed white-tailed deer. deer. J. J. Wildl. ManagE!. Manage. 29(3):471-486. 29(3):471-486. Dale F. Reed, Wildlife Researche Colorado Division of Wildlife David David C. Bowden, Bowden, Statistician Statistician Department of Statistics Statistics Department Colorado State State University Colorado University August August l~V74 1974 S ~ ►,· t! s :%4'- OF~ �_..____..,,, - -- ..J o--.... --:::~ Fact_s -- QQta~ ~"'-. - .il ,,,,_.. A - ---L --/ ----;:::::::::;-,?:'-~,__/ / , ;------4- ;n ~--- PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO ~,V" PUBLISHED • - 2...:.\ { DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES LDLIFE DIVISION DIVISION OF WI WilDLIFE h. ..~ Number Number 99 Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet SEEDING SEEDING ROADSIDES ROADSIDES FOR PHEASANT PHEASANT NESTING NESTING COVER COVER!1 Do Do pheasants pheasants utilize roadside roadside cove~ cover f?r for nesting? nesting? 'l'he The answer answer is a definite definite yes! Studies Studies m in Nebraska, Nebraska, Illinois, Illinois, here here in Colorado, and and in other other states states indicate indicate as high high as a fourth fourth of the produ~tion produ~tion each year year comes from roadsides roadsides (Baxter and and Wolfe Wolfe 1973; 1973; Joselyn Joselyn and and '!'ate Tate 1972; 1972; Klonglan Klonglan 1955; 1955; Snyder Snyder 1974). 1974). Studies Studies show s~ow pheasants pheasants utilize utilize seeded roadside~ roadsides ~or for nesting nestmg more than than they they use roadsides roadsides contammg containing natural natural weed and and grass grass cover. Roadsides Roadsides containing containing undisturbed undisturbed cover, when when compared compared with those farmed farmed to the road shoulder, shoulder, produce produce four to five young pheasants. pheasants. Roadsides Roadsides contimes more young taining taining permanent permanent cover yield 10 10 to 20 times times more young young pheasants pheasants per acre than than do wheat wheat fields. There There are other other important important values values to seeding seeding roadsides. One value, the prevention prevention and control roadsides. of noxious perennial perennial weeds, is an an important important consideration. Weeds are a natural natural product product of consideration. disturbed disturbed soil. If If alfalfa alfalfa (Medicago (Medicago satiua) sativa) and perennial grasses grasses are present, present, it it is difficult difficult for perennial bindweed bindweed (Conuotuulus (Convolvulus aruensis), arvensis), poverty poverty weed (Alva Canada (Alva axiLlanis), axillanis), Canada thistle thistle (Cirsium (Cirsium aruense) arvense), downy brome (Bromus (Bromus tectorum), tectorum), and and others others t~ to get started. started. In contrast, contrast, persistent persistent burning, cultivation, cultivation, and and disturbance disturbance ?f of roadburning, sides permit permit noxious noxious weeds to establish establish and and spread. spread. So, one of the best best and and most most economical economical long-term weed control control techniques techniques is to establish establish long-term perennial undisturbed. Late perennial cover and and keep it undisturbed. Late summer summer seed harvest harvest probably probably won't won't hurt hurt the quality quality of the vegetation vegetation for for pheasants, pheasants, but mowing for for hhay, summer, will lower mowing ay, even in late summer, its value value as nnesting esting cover the the following spring. spring. Another Another dividend dividend from roadside roadside seeding seeding is that ial covet' that perenn perennial cover along along roadsides roadsides has has eye appeal appeal which makes makes any any farm more attractive attractive and and more valuable. valuable. In In addition, addition, the the quality quality of farm farm life is enhanced enhanced by the presence presence of horned horned larks, larks, lark lark buntings, buntings, meadowlarks, meadowlarks, pheasants, pheasants, rabbits, an<l and otlw1· other wildlife, and and honey bees can can rahhits, Contrihution from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W.37-.R. W-37-R. 1I Contribution utilize persistently persistently blooming blooming roadside roadside alfalfa alfalfa as an important important food source. PROCEDURES PROCEDURES IN COVER COVER ESTABLISHMENT ESTABLISHMENT Perennial not hard Perennial cover is not hard to establish, establish, but but it it does require require a little little more patience patience than than growing growing the annual that most annual crops crops that most of us are are used to. Perennial Perennial g-rasses grasses are are slow in getting getting started, started, so they they won't flourish flourish the the first first year. year. Close post- seeding needed to determine seeding im,pections inspections are needed determine whether whether a satisfactory satisfactory stand stand exists. exists. But once established, they excellent cover that that established,, they soon form excellent persists persists without without maintenance maintenance for many many years. years. I have observed observed numerous numerous stands stands of grass grass that that have were nearly nearly or completely completely weed-free and and remainremainthat way way year year after after year. year. In In the long run, run, ed that the long maintenance maintenance of perennial perennial cover is probably probably much cheaper than other cheaper than other weed control control technitechniques now now used. Most Most readers readers are are probably probably already already familiar familiar with perennial grass with procedures procedures for establishing establishing perennial grass alfalfa, but but some of the the fo11owing following reminders reminders and alfalfa, may be helpful. Plant What to Plant Alfalfa with tall wheatgrass Alfalfa in in combination combination with tall wheatgrass (Agropyron elongatum) elongatum) is recommended recommended for use (Agropyron as pheasant nesting cover on roadsides pheasant nesting roadsides and and in other value was was noted other situations situations in Colorado. Its Its value noted in the probably is the Daka,tas Dakotas (Nelson 1972) 1972) and and it probably about as good as any any cover for nesting nesting about throughout lains region. region. Tall throughout much much of the the Great Great P Plains Tall wheatgrass has has strong strong stems stems which which are are more wheatgrass lodge-resist:ant lodge-resistant under under heavy heavy snows snows than than intermediate wheatgrass wheatgrass (A. intermedium), intermedium), crested crested termediate wheatgrass (A (A. cristatum), cristatum), and and smooth smooth brome brome wheatgrass (Bromus inermis). inermis). These These shorter shorter species species can can be (Bromus substituted tall wheatgrass, wheatgrass, especially where substituted for tall especially where taller taller grass grass might might cause cause snow snow accumulations accumulations on road surfac,es. surfaces. Grasses Grasses in in pure pure stands stands become nitrogennitrogendeficient, deficient, stunted, stunted, and and root-bound root-bound in growth growth �form within within a few years. years. Inoculation Inoculation of alfalfa alfalfa and sweet clovers (Melilotus (Melilotus spp.) in grass grass stands stands provides provides nitTogen nitrogen tu to retain retain better better grass grass growth. growth. Dahl Dahl et al. (1967) (1967) reported reported that that intermediate intermediate wheatgi-ass-alfalfa pastures produced an wheatgrass-alfalfa pastures produced an average average of 51 51 percent percent more forage and and had had 67 percent percent greater greater carrying carrying capacity capacity than than did intermediate termediate wheatgrass wheatgrass pastuxes pastures without without alfalfa. alfalfa. Production Production in grass-alfalfa grass-alfalfa pastures pastures was still double that that in pure grass grass pastures pastures 11 11 years years after after seeding. seeding. Studies Studies in in northeastern northeastern Colorado Colorado show alfalfaalfalfagrass grass combinations combinations contained contained significantly significantly higher higher pheasant pheasant nest nest densities densities than than unmixed unmixed grass grass stands stands in roadsides. roadsides. Ranger Ranger and and Rhyzoma Rhyzoma alfalfa alfalfa varieties varieties were used in these these roadside roadside studies, studies, but but others others adapted adapted to Colorado Colorado would probably probably work equally equally well. These These alfalfa alfalfa stands, stands, which which have have not not been mowed or cut, show no signs signs of dying dying out or becoming becoming stunted stunted several several years years after after seeding seeding (Fig. 1). 1). A seeding seeding rate rate of 2 to 3 pounds pounds of alfalfa alfalfa and and about about 6 pounds pounds of tall tall wheatgrass wheatgrass per acre is recommended. recommended. This rate rate should should be doubled if the the seed is broadcast broadcast rather rather than than drilled. In In addition, addition, 11 pound of switchgrass switchgrass (Panicum (Panicum uirgatum) uirgatum) can can be added added to the the mixture. mixture. This warm warm season season species forms very lodge-resistant lodge-resistant bunches bunches which provide provide excellent excellent residual residual nesting nesting cover which the the following spring. spring. In general, general, however, cool season season vegetation vegetation should should dominate dominate for nesting nesting preference to warm warm season season grasses. grasses. cover in preference stand of alfalfa alfalfa with scattered scattered tall Fig. 1. I. A seeded stand wheatgrass wheatgrass intermingled. intermingled. Plant When to Plant (1962) recommended recommended fall and and early early Hull et al. (1962) spring as the the most most reliable reliable times times for seeding seeding cool spring season season grasses. grasses. Where Where alfalfa alfalfa is a primary primary component component of the the seed mixture, mixture, late late August August or early early September September are probably probably the best best times times if moisture moisture conditions conditions are adequate. adequate. Perennials Perennials at these these times times have have a better better chance chance of seeded at getting getting ahead ahead of fast-growing fast-growing annual annual weeds than those those seeded in spring. spring. But. But, fall fall moisture moisture is than often insufficient insufficient in Colorado. In northem::l.ern northeastern Colorado studies, studies, some stands stands werEi were successfully successfully established established by seeding seeding into into dry ground ground in early early August. vegetaAugust. Subsequent Subsequent rains rains brought brought the the vegetation up up later later in September. September. Other Other stands stands seeded seeded in May, June, usually June, and and July July also were usually successful, rainy successful, especially especially if if seeded during during a rainy period. Spring-seeded Spring-seeded stands stands are are usually usually dominated dominated annual weeds during during the first first year. This by annual year. This overstory back later later in overstory vegetation vegetation can can be mowed back the summer summer to reduce weed competition. competition. Heruntil at bicides should should not not be used on new seeding seeding until at least least 66 to 8 weeks after after the vegetation vegetation is up (Heikes and and Fults Fults 1974). 1974). How How to to Plant Plant Although Although we cannot cannot predict predict or control control moisture moisture conditions conditions for seeding seeding in dryland, dryland, we can provide optimum when can try to to provide optimum conditions conditions when moisture important moisture does come. One One of the the most most important essentials essentials is a firm seed bed, which which helps helps hold hold the the moisture when moisture and and helps insure insure its avaiilability availability when needed. One of the major major planting planting problems problems is that that most o,o large large to use most modern modern farm farm machinery machinery is ttoo in roadsides. roadsides. Therefore, Therefore, it it may may be necessary necessary to borrow or rent rent the the proper proper equipment. equipment. Basically, Basically, borrow area should be plowed or rototilled rototilled to the seeded area destroy existing existing vegetation. vegetation. One or more rains, rains, destroy before before seeding, seeding, will help settle settle the the soil and and prepare prepare a moisture moisture base base for seedinj:!;. seeding. Subsequent Subsequent sprouts can be destroyed destroyed by sh shallow tillage. weed sprouts allow tillage. A drill equipped equipped with with depth depth bands bands to control control A depth placement placement is best. Tall Tall wheatgrass wheatgrass seed depth which is fairly fairly large, should should be placed about seed, whichis placed about 11 inch 1962). Small inch deep (Hull et al. al.1962). Small seeds, such such as as those of alfalfa alfalfa and and switchgrass, switchgrass, should should be those placed in the An agitator the upper upper half-inch half-inch of soil. An agitator the drill box is a necessity necessity when when seeding seeding light light in the chaffy seeds. or chaffy Broadcasting with with aa small, small, hand-cranked hand-cranked Broadcasting cyclone seeder, followed by shallow shallow soil disturdisturbance bance with with aa spike tooth tooth harrow, harrow, will also also work in roadside roadside seeding, seeding, and may may be the the only only method method seeding the the road road shoulder. shoulder. Seeded stands stands in of seeding the bottoms bottoms of road road ditches ditches wi11 will eventually eventually the spread spread up the the shoulder shoulder but this this is aa slow process. process. If possible, used followpossible, a roller-packer roller-packer should should be used followseeding or broadcasting broadcasting to Jo.rm firm the ing seeding the soil arnund around the seed. Remember germinaRemember that that grasses grasses are slow in germination and the and slow in initial initial growth growth...Also, that that the stand may may look poor during during the the first first year, but stand year, but within within a couple of years years it will probably probably be nearly nearly weed-free. Moderately Moderately dense stands stands attain attain better better weed-free. and growth growth and persist persist in a healthy healthy state state vigor and longer longer than than stands stands that that were too dense dense initially initially (Fig. 2). �Many Many grassy grassy draws draws and and other other unfarmed unfarmed "waste "waste _areas" areas" contain contain buffalo buffalo grass grass (Buchloe (Buchloe dactyloides), dactyloides), blue grama grama (Bouteloua (Bouteloua gracilis), gracilis), and and other other short short grass grass vegetation vegetation of marginal marginal value value to pheasants pheasants and and other other wildlife. wildlife. These These sites, if plowed and reseeded to tall tall wheatgrass and reseeded wheatgrass and yield many and alfalfa, alfalfa, would would yield many more birds. birds. Tall Tall sweet cloveir clover could be added added to provide provide additional additional wi nter cover for the the first years. More and winter first few years. and better throughout the better cover, interspersed interspersed throughout the farmlands, farmlands, is our best best hope hope for sustaining sustaining pheasan!s. pheasan~s. and and o~her wildlife in in our farming farming commumties._ Without vast commumtIes. WIthout wildlife, our vast farmlands farmlands will become bleak, bleak, sterile, sterile, and and mere mere land. land. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Fig. 2. 2. Cr~sted w~eat~ass, wheat~ass, intermediate intermediate wheatgrass, wheatgrass, and and a!Ialia alfalfa m combmat10n combmatlOn provide nearly nearly weed-free nesting nesting cover along this roadside. VEGETATION VEGETATION FOR FOR WILDLIFE SURVIVAL SURVIVAL Although Although nesting nesting cover is usually usually the the most critical critical need for survival survival and and development development pheasants pheasants need protective protective cover throughout throughout th~ year. Roadside Roadside vegetation vegetation can be a real real asset asset for both both of these these requirements. requirements. For example, example, alfalfa alfalfa offe1·s offers good brood-rearing brood-rearing cover and and grasses grasses are of considerable considerable use to pheasants pheasants through through the fall an~ winter. Roadsides Roadsides provide provide edge cover along along an~ whIch roosters roosters stake stake their their territories territories to defend in which the spring. spring. But, But, in winter winter, snows snows often fill the roadsides so that that other other co~er, cover, such as windroadsides breaks breaks or large large corn and and wheatstubblefields, wheat stubble fields are pheasant survival. survival. ' needed for pheasant W~d americana), cedars Wild plum (Prunus (Prunus americana) cedars (Juniperus spp.), or other other shrub shrub species sp~cies also (Jumperus provide provide excellent excellent cover and and can be planted planted in clumps clumps that that do not take take up much much space. They can be established established easily easily and and economically economically and and can can be maintained maintained with with a minimum minimum of time and and effort.. effort. Wild plums plums are among among the the hardiest hardiest of vegetation, and and their their root sprouts sprouts keep woody vegetation, going despite despite rabbit rabbit damage damage and and other other adversities. Most trees gradually gradually self-prune self-prune their their lower branches and and become open underneath underneath, 1 but but branches and cedars cedars retain retain the the low growth growth form form plums and needed by pheasants pheasants and and other other wildlife year year after after year. year. Baxter, Baxter, W. W. L., and and C. W. W. Wolfe. Wolfe. 1973. Life history history and the ring-necked and ecology of the ring-necked pheasant pheasant in NebraskaL. Nebraska. Nebr. Nebr. Game Game and and Parks Parks Commission Commission Tech. Puhl. Publ. 58 p. Dahl, B. E., A.H. K, A. C. Everson, Everson, J. J. J. J. Norris, Norris, and and A. H. Denham. Denham. 1967, 1967. Grass-alfalfa Grass-alfalfa mixtures mixtures for grazing grazing in Eastern Eastern Colorado. Colorado. Colo. State State Univ., Univ., Extension Extension Bull. No. 529S. 25 p. Heikes, P. E., E., and and J. Fults.1974. Fults. 1974. Colorado Colorado weed control handbook. handbook. Colo. Colo. State State Univ. Univ. (Mimeo ' loose bound) bound) 231 p. C., ,JJr., F.. Hervey, C. W. Doran, and and W. W. ~., D. F W. Doran, Hull, A. C:, JJ.. McGmmes. McGinnies. 1962. Seeding Seeding Colorado Colorado range range lands. lands. Colo. State State Univ., Univ., Exp. Sta. Bull. 498-S. 498-S. 46 p. JJoselyn, ose1yn, G. G. B., and and G. I. Tate. Tate. 1972. 1972. Practical Practical aspects roadside cover for aspects of managing managing roadside nesting nesting pheasants. pheasants. J. J. Wildl. Manage. Manage. 36(1):136(1):111. Klonglan, K 1955. Pheasant Pheasant nesting nesting an andd Klonglan, E. D. 1955. production in in Winnebago Winnebago County, County, Iowa, 1954. 1954. production Iowa Acad. 62:626-637. Acad. Sci. 62:626-637. Proc. Iowa K. 1972. Wetlands waterfowl _Nelson, Nelson, H. K. Wetlands and and waterfowl relationships. relationships. Presentation Presentation to the the Water Water Bank Bank Advisory Advisory Board, Board, U. s_ S. Dept. Dept. of Agr. Washing1lon, Washington, D. C. March March 2-3, 2-3, 1972. 1972. 11 11 p. Snyder, W. W. D.1974.Pheasantuseofroadsidesfor D.1974. Pheasant use of roadsides for Snyder, nesting nesting i:n in northeast northeast Colorado. Colorado. Colo. Div. of No. 36. (in press) press) Wildl., Spec. Rept. No_ Warren Warren D. :Synder Synder Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher October 19?4 1974 ��,/ ------------------.~-~~ -.-._. __ ._-~ ....,~. ~. .._-----------.y- .'r:'--' ~/ s. ~Q!jla Q~~C ~/~~/ /, .-' .:. ;i1 , 01 -~ -- - _!.., PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISH ED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURC RESOURCES ES DEPARTM ENT OF DIVISION OF WILDLIFE DIVISION OF WILDLIFE A -'. ,d' ~. I~ ",;... Information Leaflet Game Information r: ~~ Number 100 DOCUMENTING LEAD POISONING IN WATERFOWL WATERFOWL 11 DOCUMENTING LEAD POISONING Waterfowl mortality the ingestion ingestion of Waterfowl mortality resulting resulting from from the of lead pellets has has been been aa recognized recognized problem lead pellets problem in North North America since the the late late 1800's. 1800's. Historically, Historically, the major America since the major geographic area of of concern concern has has been geographic area been the the Mississippi Mississippi Flyway; here wetlands wetlands used duck hunting hunting characcharacFlyway; here used for for duck teristically support the the teri tically have have hardpan hardpan bottoms bottoms which which support spent pellets, making them available available for for ingestion ingestion pent lead lead pellets, making them by feeding areas in the the feeding waterfowl. waterfowl. Waterfowl Waterfowl hunting hunting areas Central Flyway, and in Colorado Colorado in particular, are Central Flyway, and particular, are normally swift-flowing swift-flowing rivers, large reservoirs, or or normally rivers, large reservoirs, small ponds. Due to to continuous continuous siltation, siltation, the the resersmall ponds. Due reservoirs and ponds have soft soft bottoms. bottoms. To date, To date, in voirs and ponds have Colorado only two confirmed lead lead Colorado there there have have been been only two confirmed poisoning areas: Spring Spring Creek, Creek, which poisoning problem problem areas: which is located on on the the Monte National Wildlife Refuge located ante Vista Vista National Wildlife Refuge Rio Grande Grande County County in the the San San Luis Valley, and and in Rio Luis Valley Turk's Baca County County in extreme extreme southeast southeast Turk's Pond Pond in Baca Colorado. Both of these these areas areas have have ponds with soft soft ponds with Colorado. Both of bottoms that allow allow lead lead shot shot to to settle settle into the silt, silt, bottoms that into the making the shot unavai unavailable The need need for for making the shot lable to to the the birds. birds. The identifying actual and potential lead poisoning identifying actual and potential lead poisoning problem areas is imperative, imperative, as preventive measures problem areas preventive measures can waterfowl losses due to ingested can be taken taken to to reduce reduce waterfowl losses due to ingested lead. lead . The lead when the ingested The lead poisoning poisoning process process begins begins when the ingested lead pellet acidic environment environment (pH (pH ~ 2.0) 2.0) lead pellet reaches reaches the the acidic of the the bird's gizzard (ventriculus) (ventriculus) (Kimball (Kimball and and Munir Munir of bird's gizzard 1971).). The The grinding grinding action of the the gizzard gizzard rapidly 1971 action of rapidly wears wears down the the pellet and the and absorbed absorbed dissolved and down pellet and the lead lead is dissolved intestine. Although lead as it passes passes through through the the intestine. Although the the lead pellet the gizzard gizzard up up to to 40 pellet fragment(s) fragment(s) may may remain remajn in the days (Kimball (Kimball and and Munir 1971), the the effect effect of of lead lead days Munir 1971), absorption appears appears a few days days after after ingestion. In acute acute ingestion. In absorption cases, death death may any of of the the characteristic characteristic cases, may occur occur before before any signs of of lead appear. Some Some of of the the classic classic lead poisoning poisoning appear. signs external signs signs include include lethargy, lethargy, loss loss of of appetite, appetite, weakweakexternal ness, and a green staining at at the the vent, ness weight weight loss, loss, and green staining vent, from diarrhetic discharge. Occasionally, cephalic from diarrhetic discharge. OccasionaJly, cephalic edema (swollen (swollen head) noted in Canada Canada geese geese edema head) will be noted examination of the (Branta canadensis). canadensis). Internal Internal examination of the affected bird may reveal impaction of the proventricuproventricuaffected bird may reveal impaction of the lus and and possibly the esophageal esophageal area area (Fig. (Fig. 1), cracked possibly the I), cracked and/ or peeling gizzard (Fig. (Fig. 2), dark green green and/or peeling pads pads in the the gizzard 2), dark staining of and intestinal intestinal tract, and of the the gizzard gizzard lining lining and tract, and staining possibly the presence presence of of a lead lead pellet pellet fragment fragment in in the the possibly the gizzard. Occasionally, Occasionally, the bird may have have excessive excessive gizzard. the bird may pericardial fluid and and fibrous the blood pericardia! fluid fibrous necrosis necrosis of of the blood vessels. vessels. ~ 1Contribution from 1Contribution Aid Proiect Project W-88-R. from Federal Federal, Aid Fig. Upper digestive digestive tract tract &om from lead-poisoned lead-poisoned Canada Canada goose. goose. Note Fig. 1. l. Upper Note enlarged area area resulting resulting from from impaction impaction of food food at at the the upper upper end end of enluged of esophagus and and in the esophagus the proventriculus. proventriculus. �Lions tions in the bird. bird. Bone Bone also presents presents numerous numerous problems problems in analysis of lead by the usual analytical analytical method, method, atomic atomic absorption absorption spectrophotometry. spectrophotometry. ..."'...• 0CI CI .-.....'"'. ..... BONE BONE ~ ~ ... a: ■ Dll&IOSED LEAD D\l6I0SED LEID ro1sa11u POISOIIIO .., m COITROL COITROL IIC IIC ::::l, .,, on "' CI ~ IIIHOSED IOI-LEAD O'IGIOSEO 101- LEIO POISDIIII POISOIIII C, co fig. Fig. 2. Gizzard Gizzard lining lining with cracking cracking and and peeling peeling pads pads from from a COD· confinned firmed lead-poisoned lead-poisoned Canada Canada goose. goose. A lead poisoning poisoning case should should not not be considered considered confirmed without without chemical chemical analysis analysis of of selected tissues. The liver is considered considered to be the best indicator indicator tissue for chemical analysis analysis in diagnosing diagnosing lead poisoning. poisoning. According According to analysis of of Canada Canada geese collected at Turk's Turk's Pond, Pond, the the presence presence of of any of of the more charcharacteristic acteristic a~atomical anatomical signs such as impacted impacted proveoproventriculus triculus or lead fragments fragments in the gizzard was reflected reflected by corresponding corresponding high lead levels in the liver. In addiaddition, the range of of lead concentration concentration in the liver in non-poisoned non-poisoned Canada Canada geese does not overlap overlap that that of of definite definite lead poisoning poisoning victims (Fig. 3). The kidney can be used as an alternative alternative indicator indicator tissue if the liver liver is not not available, available, as there there is a significant significant correlation correlation (r = ..73) between liver and kidney lead levels. (r 73) between .. CI CI "' ......= "' -.....'"' ..... ....... ....'"'.. "" '"' 0 :::l IIC IIC C, CI LIVER LIVER ~ ■ OIIOIOSfD • DIAGNOSED LEID LEAD POISDIIID POISONIIG m ~ CONTROL COITROL ~ DIAGIDSU OIAGIOSED IDI ION --lEAD POISDlII8 ~ LEAD PDISDIIII ~ "" ... IIC 10D 200 200 300 300 LEID II P PPM DRY WEIGHT WEIGHT LEID 11 PM - DIY 3. Percentage Percentage distribution distribution of of linr liver lead lead levels from from hand-reared hand-reared Fig. 3. controls controls vs. suspected suspected Canada Canada goose goose lead lead poisoning poisoning victims victims from from Turk's Pond. Pond. Turk's Be~ause Because of of its availability availability and ease of of handling, handling, bone bone 1s is a popular popular tissue for collection collection for diagnosis diagnosis of of lead poisoning. poisoning. However, However, according according to analysis analysis of of Canada Canada geese collected collected at Turk's Turk's Pond, Pond, lead concentration tration levels in the the bones bones cover cover a very wide range of of values, with a definitive definitive overlap overlap occurring occurring between between of other other mortality, mortality, mainly mainly lead victims and victims of crippling crippling (Fig. 4). The metabolic metabolic turnover turnover in bone bone is than that that in liver; therefore, therefore, lead levels in much slower than the bone may not reflect reflect current current physiological physiological condicondi- -................. ~ '"' u IIC 100 LEAD II II LUO 2200 00 3DD 300 PPM -- an DRY WEIIIIT WEIGHT rr• Fig. 4. Percentage Percentage distribation distribution of of bone bone lead lead levels Crom from band-.reared hand-reared controls controls vs. vs. suspected suspected Canada Canada goose goose lead lead poisoning poisoning victims victims from from T11rk's Turk's Pond. Pond. If unexplained unexplained mortality mortality of of waterfowl waterfowl is noted noted in a particular particular area in Colorado, Colorado, notify notify the Division's Division's Research Center Center at Fort Fort Collins. Collins. Then, Then, if you are told lead poisoning poisoning is is a possible cause, follow these steps: steps: (1) Gather Gather all the carcasses. carcasses. Search the area area thoroughly, thoroughly, as birds afflicted afflicted with chronic chronic lead poisoning poisoning will seek shelter in heavy heavy veg~ vegetation tation.. (2) If you find more more than than 20 carcasses, carcasses, select select a 40percent percent sample. sample. If If any of of tbe the carcasses have been damaged damaged by scavengers, scavengers, be sure each bird in your sample sample has a liver or kidney. Disregard Disregard your carcasses represented represented by bone and and feathers feathers only . (3) Note Note unusual unusual external external or internal internal anatomical anatomical features features of of the sampled sampled birds and and remove remove a lobe of of the liver or one entire entire kidney kidney from each bird. bird. identified with Be sure the liver or kidney can be identified the bird's bird's corresponding corresponding anatomical anatomical features features . For storage, storage, the livers or kidneys can be either frozen or air-dried. air-dried. For air-drying, air-drying, simply allow the tissue plenty plenty of of air and do not not enclose in any container container until sample sample is completely completely dry and hard hard and brittle brittle to the touch. touch. (4) (4) Transport Transport the livers or kidneys kidneys as soon as possible. sible to the the laboratory laboratory at at the Wildlife Research Research Center Center in Fort Fort Collins. Collins. LITERA TURE CITED CITED LITERATURE Kimball, Kimball, W. W. H., H., and Z. A. A. Munir. Munir. 1971. 1971. The corrosion corrosion of of lead shot shot in a simulated simulated waterfowl waterfowl gizzard. gizzard. J. Wildt. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 35(2):360-365. William William J. Adrian, Adrian, Sr. Research Assistant, Assistant Szymczak, Asst. Wildlife Researcher Researche; Michael R. Szymczak, July 1975 1975 �- 0, --.. - ~.~ .I "-~(~ PUBLISHED THE COLORADO PUBLI HED BY TH E CO LORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF OF WilDLIFE WILDLIFE DIVISION ~ "'. ,I fI/ \, "". ~ I~ '". .. . " I. Game Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information .•..:: ~ Number 101 Number VOLUNTEER WING COLLECTION COLLECTION STATION STATIONl1 A VOLUNTEER Sound management game birds requires Sound management of game birds requires considerable knowledge concerning concerning the the biology biology considerable knowledge of each each species. help accumulate accumulate some of this this species. To help knowledge, breeding and and production surveys knowledge, breeding production surveys have been been developed developed for most most upland upland game game have species; however, important data data on age age and and sex species; however , important structure of most most populations populations are still lacking. lacking. structure are still This deficiency deficiency can can be partially overcome by This partially overcome collecting wings wings from hunter-harvested birds. collecting hunter-harvested birds. From analysis these wings, wings, information information can From analysis of these can be acquired concerning concerning sex and and age composition composition of acquired the harvest, harvest, nesting nesting success success of breeding the breeding females, females, hatching dates, dates, and and production and survival survival hatching production and rates. rates. grouse (Dendragapus (Dendragapus obscurus) obscurus) occur occur in in Blue grouse varying densities densities over more than 20,000 square square varying more than miles of diverse diverse habitats habitats and and terrain terrain in Colorado, Colorado, miles and receive only only low to moderate hunting and receive moderate hunting pressure and harvest harvest (Rogers (Rogers 1968). 1968). Due to low pressure and hunting pressure pressure and and extensive extensive occupied occupied range, hunting range, manned check stations have not been been manned check stations have not economically feasible feasible for collecting collecting sufficient sufficient economically samples of wings wings to satisfy satisfy management management resamples quirements. With harvests, hunter hunter densities, densities, quirements. With low harvests, and interest, a more more efficient efficient and and economical economical and interest, method for collecting collecting wings has been been needed. method wings has needed. To feasible, any any method method selected selected must must be capable capable be feasible, of sampling large areas. areas. sampling large Volunteer part part (wing, (wing, foot, etc.) etc.) collection collection Volunteer stations have been developed and used used stations have been developed and successfully by the the Arizona Arizona Game Game and and Fish Fish successfully Department for obtaining data from small small game game Department obtaining data hunters. Because Because of Arizona's Arizona's encouraging encouraging hunters. results, the Colorado Division Division of Wildlife Wildlife conthe Colorado results, structed and tested wing collection collection stations structed and test ed 10 wing stations in in Middle Park Park during during the Middle the 1975 sage sage and and blue blue grouse grouse seasons. Design Design of the the structures structures and and results results of seasons. station operations are are outlined outlined in this this paper. paper. station operations DESIGN AND AND CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION DESIGN The wing collection station described is a The wing collection station described modification of the station station developed developed by perfrom Federal Federal Aid W-37·R. Contributionfrom Aid Project Project W-37-R. 1'Contribution sonnel of the Game and Departsonnel the Arizona Arizona Game and Fish Fish Department (Fig. (Fig. 1). It It consists 30-gallon metal metal ment consists of a 30-gallon drum the supporting supporting mechanism mechanism consisting consisting drum with with the single metal metal fence post of a single post (7 ft.) and and 4 ft. 2 in. in. of 22in.-diameter The pipe screws into into a 2in.-diameter pipe pipe (Fig. 2). The pipe screws 2in.-diameter floor in.-diameter floor flange flange attached attached to the the drum drum and slips slips over over the the fence post which is driven driven into into and post which the ground. These These modifications modifications permit signifithe ground. permit a significant reduction in in cost cost and and labor, labor, compared compared to the cant reduction the Arizona design. Arizona design. ...---~--_ ..._-- Fig. collection station station in the the field, field, showing showing Fig. 1. Wing collection sign and and collection (Photo by sign collection drum. drum. (Photo by Ron Oakleaf) Oakleat) opening for depositing depositing wings into the the drum drum An opening wings into is cut cut out the lid. The The first first cut cut is made made along the out of the along the rim of the the lid for approximately approximately one-half one-half its rim its circumference. Another cut is then made through through circumference. Another cut then made the middle of ofthe creating a semicircular semicircular the middle the lid, thus thus creating opening (Fig. 2).A 19-in. piece lI8-in. x 1/2 1/2 in. x opening piece of 1/8-in. 112·in. angle iron is welded welded over the second second cut cut to over the 1/2-in. angle iron prevent injury to hunters prevent possible possible injury hunters reaching reaching into into the drum (Fig. 2). 2). Prior Prior to installation installation the the entire the drum entire drum should be cleaned and painted, drum should cleaned and painted, preferably preferably with rust retardant retardant paint. paint. with a rust The floor flange flange is bolted outside, lower lower The bolted to the the outside, middle portion portion of the the drum. drum. When When the the pipe pipe is middle screwed into the flange flange and held vertically vertically with with and held screwed into the �- - -- Metal Metal drum drum 130 (30 gal.> gal.l Opening Opening Angle Angle lfOll iron - - - L i Lid d 2" 2" Fence post .--- - - - - + - - Pipe Pipe Sign Sign 5'9" 7' 7' 4' 4'2" Middle Middle Park Park were 4 ft. x 4 ft.; consequently, consequently, the the fence poBt the post was was placed placed about about 2 ft. 10 in. into into the ground. Approximately 4 ft. 2 in. ground. Approximately in. of fence fence post post remained remained above above ground, ground, enough enough to allow allow the the pipe pipe to touch the post touch the the ground ground when when slipped slipped over the post and and permit permit the the sign sign to be attached attached to the the pipe pipe without the drum the without touching touching the drum (Fig. 2). With With the above above sp13cifications, specifications, the the station station will will be about about 5 ft. 9 in. in height. height. Signs 4-inch plywood Signs were constructed constructed of 3/ 3/4-inch plywood and with weather-resistantpaint(Fig. ). and painted painted with weather-resistant paint (Fig. l1). Each Each sig:n sign was was secured secured to the the pipe pipe either either with with Ubolts bolts or with with wire wire attached attached to eyelet eyelet screws screws on the the back back of the the sign. sign. Materials Materials and and approximate approximate costs costs for parts parts and and labor labor per per station station are are sumsummarized marized iin in Table Table 1. .Table Table J.. 1. ~ "!.. t10' ' : ~: 2' 2'10" ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ground Ground level level ◊! V~ Us,t m1.d List of of l'lllateirJ.nls materials and -approxi.ma&e. approximate 1975 coi!t cost for for one ving wing collectioll collection ac.ation station. . Quantity Quantity - - - - 4 ' · - - -- ~----4'----- Item Item E:stim.lted Estimated Oo!lt Cost 1 JO-gallon 30-gallon c:iet-al. metal drum drum (used) (used) .l 7tt. steel post 7-ft. steel fence. fence post Fig. 2. Diagram Diagram of of front front view view of of wing wing collection collection stastation. tion. (Diagram (Diagram by Richard Richard Hoffman) Hoffman) !• 4 f't. ft. $ 2.00 2.00 22 in. in. of 2 lo in.. pi_pc, pipe, includi includingng s. cu<t1og And cutting and thteadihg threading 79 5.79 Floor flange. flange, 2 in. in. fJpor the the drum drum attached, attached, the the resulting resulting apparatus apparatus resembles resembles a large large cylindrical cylindrical mailbox mailbox (Figs.1 (Figs. 1and and 3). 3). At the the desired desired location location the the fence post post is driven driven into the the ground ground and and the the pipe pipe (with (with drum drum attached) attached) into is is slipped slipped over the the post. post. To prevent prevent the the pipe and and drum drum from rotating rotating around around the the fence fence post post and and to insure stability stability of ofthe assembly, a 1/4-in. 1I4-in. cable cable is insure the assembly, fastened fastened to the the drum drum and and secured secured to a metal metal stake stake driven into into the the ground ground (Fig. 3). U-bolt U-bolt clamps clamps are driven used for fastening fastening the the cable cable to the the barrel barrel and and used stake. stake. The depth depth to which which the the fence post post is driven driven into into the ground ground and and the the length length of the the pipe depend depend the upon the the size of the the sign sign utilized. utilized. Signs Sig-ns used used in upon :LOO 5.00 1. 89 4 ft. plywood ssign ih'n ft. -x x 4 ft. ft.,.• 3/4-in 3/4-in. , plywood 30.00 30.00 7 fc. ft. of of 1/4 1/4 J.11 in.. cobl« cable ,1.47 . 47 U.-bolt rL V-bolt damps, clamps, 3/lt 3/4 iin. ..70 70 in. of of l/8 l/B in in., xx 1/2 1/2 in. in. > x 1/2 1/2 1'1 in., 19 in. angle iTon iron .ansle ...45 4S I-in. .19 eyelet screws, 1/4 in. diameter Misce.llancous Miscellaneous 6olts Bolts (l (1 in. in. X x 5/16 5/16 in.) in.) nuts, nuts. l,j'D.SheT.Swashers .~0 .90 Rustoleum paint paint Rustolewn 1.38 1.38 M~ta.1 S tak.~. Metalst~e 1.00 1.00 Total materials materials Total $ Labor t1~uction, indudJ.ng Labor (cons (construction, including iigo,) sign) 5 hrs. hrs. ac at $5.00fhr. $~.00/hc, Total t, ,nater1als and llabor abor Total cos cost, materials 50.77 SO. 77 25.00 25 .00 $ 75, 77 75.77 Drum Drum Opening Angle Iron Lid Floor Floor flange flange t - - -- - - S l g n Sign r - - - - - - - - + -- ---Cable Cable - t -- -- U-bolt U-bolt t+--- - - Pipe Pipe it+--- - - - Fence Fence post post Stake Ground level Fig. Fig. 3. 3. Diagram Diagram of of side side view view of of wing wing collection collection station. station. (Diagram by by Richard Richard Hoffman) Hoffman) (Diagram RESULTS RESULTS AND AND DISCUSSION DISCUSSION Prior Prior to tlb.e the opening opening day day of grouse grouse season season stations sta tions placed along along roads roads leading leading from from most most major major were placed grouse hunting hunting areas areas in in Middle Middle Park. Park. The The grouse stations remained available hunters stations remained available to hunters throughout throughout the the season season (September (September 13 to October October 5). weekend, 5). All stations stations were were checked checked each each weekend, usually usually on on Sunday Sunday evenings evenings, 1 and and opportunistically tunistically during during the the week. Since Since Middle Middle Park Park attracted both sage blue grouse attracted both sage and and blue grouse hunters, hunters, instructions instructions on the the sign sign requested requested one wing wing from each each grouse grouse harvested, harvested, regardless regardless of species. species. This This probably prompted even those hunters probably prompted even those hunters who who were uncertain of which which species species they they shot shot to deposit deposit a uncertain wing. wing. �One hundred hundred and and twenty twenty blue blue grouse grouse and and 81 81 sage sage grouse grouse wings wings were collected collected from the the 10 10 drums. the stations were available drums. Although Although the stations were available to both both blue blue and and sage sage grouse grouse hunters hunters throughout throughout the the 2323- and and 3-day 3-day seasons, seasons, respectively, respectively, only only 19 19 blue blue grouse grouse wings wings and and 10 sage sage grouse grouse wings wings were deposited deposited on weekdays; weekdays; the the remaining remaining 172 wings wings were collected collected on weekends weekends (8 days), days), primarily primarily opening opening weekend. weekend. In comparison, comparison, seven seven manned manned check check stations stations operated operated for 20 days days (8 hrs. hrs. per day day minimum) minimum) involving involving 25 people people resulted resulted in the the collection collection of 505 sage sage grouse grouse wings wings and and only only 111 111 blue grouse grouse wings. wings. The The greater greater number number of sage sage grouse grouse wings wings collected collected at at manned manned check check stations stations can can be attributed attributed to the the confinement confinement of more more hunters hunters in in a limited limited area area (North (North Park). Park). North North Park Park represents represents a unique unique situation situation (only four access access roads roads to the the hunting hunting area) area) and and is not not representative representative of most most grouse grouse hunting hunting areas areas in the the state, state, especially especially areas areas utilized utilized by blue grouse grouse hunters. hunters. Of 268 blue blue grouse grouse wings wings collected collected in Colorado Colorado in 1975, 44.8 percent percent (120) (120) were deposited deposited in wing wing collection collection stations, stations, 41.8 percent percent (111) (111) were obtained manned check tained at at manned check stations, stations, and and 13.4 perpercent cent (37) (37) were were collected collected by four four Wildlife Wildlife ConservaConservation tion Officers. Officers. Only Only one man man was was needed needed to set up (15 (15 minutes minutes per per station), station), check check (2 hours hours per servicing), servicing), and and disassemble disassemble (15 minutes minutes per per stastation) the the 10 stations. stations. Compared Compared to manned manned check check tion) stations, stations, the the volunteer volunteer wing wing collection collection stations stations more efficient efficient and and required required considerably considerably were more less time, manpower, manpower, and and expense expense for operation. operation. Because these these stations stations were unmanned, unmanned, no adBecause ditional data data could be collected. collected. ditional Minimal Minimal effort effort was was necessary necessary to maintain maintain the the stations. Occasionally Occasionally trash trash had had to be removed removed stations. from the the drums, drums, and and the the signs signs had had to to be cleaned cleaned once to remove remove mud. mud. One sign sign was was shot shot twice twice with with 22-caliber gun; otherwise, otherwise, no other other a 22-caliber gun; no maintenance maintenance was was required. required. With increased increased knowledge knowledge gained gained in in 1975 1975 concerning cerning hunter hunter distribution distribution in in Middle Middle Park, Park, samples wings received received should samples of grouse grouse wings should increase increase in future future years years due to relocating relocating non-productive non-productive barrels barrels to more more favorable favorable locations. locations. To further further increase increase sample sample sizes, sizes, more more drums drums will be built built and and used in in other other popular popular grouse grouse hunting hunting areas areas in in Colorado. Colorado. One One minor minor change change in in design design will be made made from from that that used used in in 1975; a diagi-am diagram showing showing hunters wing from the body hunters where where to separate separate the the wing from the body will be included included on on the the signs. signs. SUMMARY SUMMARY Volunteer Volunteer check check stations stations as as described described have have been used in been successfully successfully used in Arizona Arizona to collect collect data data from from a variety variety of small small game game species. species. In Colorado Colorado they in they were instrumental instrumental in inexpensively inexpensively increasing creasing sample sample sizes sizes of of blue blue and and sage sage grouse grouse wings wings coUected collected in in Middle Middle Park Park in in 1975. Use Use of such the state such stations stations in in other other areas areas of the state for a variety variety of small small game game species species should should greatly greatly increase management purpurincrease data data available available for management poses. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. R. A Department of Fishery A.. Ryder, Ryder, Department Fishery and and Wildlife Biology, Biology, Colorado Colorado State State University, University, and and Funk, Colorado Colorado Division Division of of Wildlife, H. D. Funk, this paper. paper. Their reviews are critically critically reviewed reviewed this Their reviews are appreciated appreciated and and gratefully gratefully acknowledged. acknowledged. LITERA'J~URE LITERATURE CITED CITED Rogers, Rogers, G. E. 1968. The The blue blue grouse grouse in in Colorado. Colorado. Colorado Colorado Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Tech. Tech. Bull. No. pp. 21. 63 pp. Richard Richard W. Hoffman Hoffman Wildlife Researcher Wildlife Researcher Candidate Candidate Clait Clait E. Braun Braun Wildlife Researcher Researcher Wildlife November 1975 November �r PUBLISH ED BY TH E CO LORADO DEPARTM ENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF WILDLIF E d .' f I\~ I. '<..'" .. , ~ Number Number 102 Game Information Information Leaflet Game Leaflet GUIDELINE TO SELECTING RATES OF NITROGEN NITROGEN FERTILIZER FERTILIZER GUIDELINE SELECTING RATES TO INCREASE INCREASE HERBAGE HERBAGE PRODUCTION PRODUCTION ON SAGEBRUSH SAGEBRUSH WINTER RANGESl 1 RANGES Several researchers have reported Several researchers have reported on the the possibilities pos ibilities of increasing increasing production production and and improving quality of forage forage on big game ranges the quality game rnnges proving the with nitrogen nitrogen fertilizer (Bayoumi and and Smith Smith with fertilizer (Bayoumi 1976, Anderson 1972, Williams 1973, Carpenter 1976, Anderson 1972, Williams 1973 Carpenter 1971,and and Lindzey Lindzey 1967). 1967).Various 1971 and Wood and Various levels levels nitrogen have studies of nitrogen have been evaluated evaluated in these these studies and forage in terms terms of yield increases increases and forage quality quality changes, but little attention attention has has been given to changes, but little been given evaluating the the most rate in term terms of evaluating most beneficial beneficial rate pounds herbage produced pounds of herbage produced per per pound pound of nitrogen applied. applied. Increases Increases in nitrogen fertilizer nitrogen nitrogen fertilizer prices focused g1·eater greater attenrecent years years have have focused attenprices in recent tion on this this question. question. AND MATERIALS MATERIALS METHODS AND Nitrogen fertilizer (ammonium 33.4%1 itrngen fertilizer (ammonium nitrate, nitrate 33.4<11i N)) was applied to three study areas areas located located on was applied three study native sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata native big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata tridentata) rangeland in Grand Grand County, tridentata) rangeland in County Colorado in October October 1969. 1969. These study sites Colorado These study sites represented three three conti·asting contrasting types types of mule mule deer represented winter range range in the area. Fertilizer Fertilizer winter the Middle Middle Park Park area. was applied at at five different different rate rates: : 0 0, 30, 60, 90, was applied and 120 120 lbs of nitrogen nitrogen per acre. and acre. Herbage production made Herbage production measurements measurements were made in August August the year before before treatment treatment the year (pretreatment) and and for each each of 3 yrs yrs after treatment treatment) after treatment (1970,1971, and 1972). 1972).These (1970, 1971 and These measurements measurement.s were made with capacitance meter meter in a made with an electronic electronic capacitance double sampling sampling system system where where capacitance capacitance double meter readings read on certain certain plots, meter reading were were read plot.s, and and then vegetation on those those plots clipped, then all vegetation plots was was clipped, and weighed. weighed. A regression regression was was developed developed dried, and between meter readings readings and and air-dry air-dry weights weights of between meter regression equation equation was forage; this this regression wa then then used used to predict yields on plots vegetation yields plots which which were predict vegetation only meter-read meter-read (Carpenter (Carpenter 1970). 1970). Yields Yields of both only both Project. W-38-R W-38-R.. 'I Cont.ribution onlribution from from Federal Federal Aid /lid Project total herbage shrubs) and total herbage (forbs + grasses g:ra ses + shrubs) and shrub herbage alone were obtained obtained for all shrub herbage alone treatments years of the study. treatments in all years the study. Inherent differences differences in yields yields among Inherent among pretreatment yields on plots at each each study study area area treatment yields plots at necessitated the necessitated the uusee of covariance covariance techniques techniques to analyze the the data. analyze data. Covariance Covariance adjustments adjustments removed these natural natural site site differences differences and and made made removed these more meaningful comparisons. for more meaningful treatment treatmen t comparisons. These adjusted values for shrub shrub herbage herbage and and These adju ted values total herbage herbage for each the 3-yr total each treatment treatment over the evaluation period used to calculate calculate efficienevaluation period were used The adjusted adjusted increases yields obincreases in yields cy ratios. ratio . The tained nitrogen level compared compared to the tained at at each each nitrogen the control treatments nitrogen) for each each year year conti·ol treatments (no nitrogen were added, added, and this total the level of and this total divided divided by the nitrogen applied to compute compute the efficiency ratios. ratios. nitrogen applied the efficiency RESULTS RESULTS The nitrogen (120 (120 lbs) was was the the The highest highe t level of nitrogen most efficient herbage most efficient in terms terms of pounds pounds of herbage produced pound of nitrogen nitrogen applied applied when produced per per pound when both shrub herbage herbage and herbage are are conboth shrub and total total herbage sidered (Tables (Tables 1 and and 2). 2). For For total total herbage herbage yield, sidered the second second most most efficient efficient level was was the the lowest rate the lowest rate of nitrogen, nitrogen, followed by the 60- and and 90-lb levels levels of the 60N/acre, For shrub shrub herbage, acre, respectively. respectively. For herbage, 60 lbs N/ N/I acre most efficien t, followed by the the N acre was was second second most efficient, 90respectively. Benefits Benefits from 90- and and 30-lb levels, levels. respectively. the negligible in the the lower two nitrogen nitrogen rates rates were negligible the third while increases increases in yields yields at at the third year, year, while the two higher yrs (Tables (Tables 1 and and higher levels levels were obvious obvious all 3 yr 2). DISCUSSION DISCUSSION A hypothetical hypothetical comparison comparison of these these efficiency efficiency values the low and rates of nitrogen values from the and high high rates nitrogen will help really mean mean. . help illustrate illustrate what what the the values values really Assume available for a range range there is $25,000 available As ume there �TABLE TABLE 1. 1. Adjusted Adj usted increases increas es in in shrub shrub herbage herbage yields yields (lb/acre) (lb/acre) over ove1· control control plots plot for for 1970, 1970, 1971, I 971, and and 1972, 1972, and the- corresponding corresponding efficiency c-ffiriency ratio ratio for for each cac-h level level of of ancl the nitrogen nitrogen Rates Rate..- of of nitrogen nitro3r.n fertilizer fertilizar (lb/acre) Ub/a<:re) Year Yeuc 30 30 60 60 90 90 120 120 1970 1910 89 89 257 257 169 169 507 507 1971 1971 103 103 257 257 273 273 1,13 1972 1972 -45 - 45 -14 -lA 97 97 292 292 Totals Tot~lS 147 147 500 500 539 539 1,212 1,212 Efficiency EfEici enccy ratio rnc~o 4.9 4.9 8.3 8.3 6.0 6 .0 factors factors as as how how inadequate inadequate is if> the the untreated un treated forage forage supply supply for for the the grazing grazing animals animals in in terms terms of ofpounds pounds of of forage f'oragt• per J)l'l' acre, a 'l'(\ and and how how much much area area is iH available available to to be be treated. treated. Even Even though though fertilizer fertilizer costs cos ts are aremuch much greater greater at at the the high high rate rate of of application, application, the the greater greater longevity longevity of of treatment treatment effects effects demonstrated demonstrated at at this this level level may may justify justify treating treating smaller smaller areas. areas. n TABLE TABLE 2. 2 . Adjusted Adjusted increases increase in in total total herbage herbage yields yields (lb/acre) (lb/acre) over over control control plots plots for for 1970, 1970. 1971, 1971 , and and 1972, 1972, and and the the corresponding corresponding efficiency efficiency ratio .ratio for for each each level level of of nitrogen nitrogen 10.1 10 . 1 fertilization fertilization project. project. Further Furthei· assume assume that that amammonium monium nitrate nitrate fertilizer fertilizer will will cost cost $200 $200 per per ton, ton, or or $0.10 $0.10 per per pound pound (1975 (1975 prices), prices), and and that that itit will will cost cost $35 $:35 aa ton ton to to apply apply from from aircraft aircraft (Bayoumi (Bayoumi and and Smith Smith 1976). By By simple simple calculations, calculations, 105 tons tons of of nitrogen nitrogen fertilizer fertilizer can can be purchased purchased at at aa cost cost of of $21,000 $21,000 and and applied applied for for $3,675 (105 105 x $35), for for a grand . grand total total o{ of $24,675. Since Since ammonium ammonium nitrate nitrate fertilizer fertilizer contains contains 33 percent percent elemental elemental nitrogen, nitrogen, the the total total fertilizer fertilizer weight must be be divided divided by by 33 to to weight (210,000 lbs) lbs) must determine the actual actual amount amount of of nitrogen nitrogen that that will will determine the be be applied applied (70,000 (70,000 lbs). lbs). Next, Next, this this value value is is divided divided by N// acre, by 30 (30 lbs lbsN acre, the the selected selected treatment treatment level), yielding value of of 2,333, the the acreage acreage which which can can yielding a value be be treated treated with with the the $25,000 budget. budget. At At the the level leveJ of 30 lbs acre can can be be stimulated stimulated to to lbs N/acre, N / acre, each each acre produce an average average of of 9.8 lbs lbs of of total total herbage berba e produce an more more than than untreated untreated areas areas for each each pound pound of of nitrogen nitrogen applied applied (Table (Table 2). By By multiplying multiplying 70,000 (lbs ofN ofN applied) applied) times times 9.8, an an average average increase increase of of 686,000 lbs of 686 000 lbs of total total forage forage on these these 2,333 acres acre (an (an increase 295lbs increase of of295 lbs of of forage forage for each each acre acre treated) treated) will will be be realized. realized. For nitrogen the For the the high high level of of nitrogen the calculations calculations are are as as follows: The The amount amount of of area area that that can can be treated 120-lb-N/acre found by treated at at the the 120-lb-N/ acre rate rate is i found by dividing dividing 70,000 by 120, or or 583 acres. acres. By applying applying nitrogen nitrogen at at a rate rate of of 120 lbs/ lbs/ acre acre an an increase increase of of 11.7 lbs lbs in in total total herbage herbage yield yield over over untreated untreated areas can be be obtained obtained for each each pound pound of of nitrogen nitrogen a1·eas can applied(Table 2). Next, multiplying multiplying 70,000 by by 11.7 applied(Table 2). shows shows an au increase increase of of 819,000 lbs lbs of of total total forage forage can can be produced produced on on these these 583 acres acres (an (an increase increase of of forage for each 11,405 405 lbs of of forage each acre acre treated). treated). Similar Similar calculations calculations can can be be made made for shrub shrub herbage herbage using using the 1. the values values in in Table Table L Obviously, made is whether Obviously, the the decision decision to be made whether the lower to apply apply the lower rate rate on on a larger larger area area and and receive smaller increase in total total herbage herbage yield yield receive a smaller increase in per the higher higher rate apply the rate and and treat treat a per acre acre or to apply smaller but receive increase in total smaller area area but receive a larger larger increase total herbage yield acre. The this quesherbage yield per per acre. The answer answer to this tion require additional information on tion will require additional information on such such Rates Ra tes of of nitrogen n i ~rogen fertilizer ferci.li~cr (Ib/acre) (lb/acr~) 60 90 120 60 90 120 Year Ye.,a, 30 JO 1970 1971) 132 132 322 322 233 576 576 1971 1971 156 1.56 233 233 302 302 486 486 1972 1972 6 -7 -7 135 135 346 294 29~ 548 548 670 670 1,408 Totals To t als Efficiency Effi e ■ ncy ratio •~tlo 9.8 9.8 9.1 9. l 7.4 7 . ,, 11. l 1. 7; LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Anderson, Anderson, B. L., L. R. R. D. Pieper, Pieper, and and V. W. W. Howard, Howard, Jr. Jr. 1974. Growth Growth response response and and deer deer utilization utilization offertilized J. Wild!. Wildl. Manage. Manage. 38(3):52538(3):525offertilized browse. browse. J. 530. Bayoumi, 1976.Response M . A., A., and and A. A. D. Smith. Smith. 1976. Response Bayou.mi, M. of ter range tion to fertilizaof big big game game win winter range vegeta vegetation fertilization. Range Manage. Manage. 29(1):44-47. 29(1):44-47. tion. J. J . Range Carpenter, Carpenter L. H. 1970. Middle Middle Park Park deer deer studystudyrange range fertilization. fertilization. Colo. Colo. Div. Div. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks, Fed. Parks, Fed. Aid Aid Proj. Proj. W-38-R-24,Work W-38-R-24, Work Plan Plan 14, 14 Job Job 5, Job Job Prog. Prog. Rep., Game Game Res. Re . Rep. July. July. pp. 369-393. 369-393. ______ - range _ _ __ . 1971. Middle Middle Park Park deer deer study studyrange fertilization. fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks, Parks, Fed. Proj. W-38-R-25,Work W-38-R-25, Work Plan Plan 14, Job Job 5, Fed. Aid Aid Proj. Job Job Prog. Prog. Rep., Game Game Res. Rep. July. July. pp. 225225253. Williams, Effects of of nitrogen nitrogen fertilizafertilizaWilliams, G. L. 1972. Effects tion on the the nutritional nutritional quality quality of of mule mule deer deer tion on winter winter forages. forages . M.S. M.S. Thesis, Thesis, Colorado Colorado State State Univ., Univ., Ft. Ft. Collins. Collins. 85 p. Wood, and J. J . S. Lindzey. Linclzey. 1967. The The effects effects Wood, G. W., and of protein, of forest forest fertilization fertilization on the the crude crude protein, calcium, and phosphorus phosphorus content content of of deer deer calcium, and browse in a mixed mixed oak oak forest. forest. N aturaliste aturaliste Can. Can. browse in 94(3):335-346. 94(3):335-346. Len Len H. Carpenter Carpenter Asst. Wildlife Researcher Asst. Wildlife Researcher May May 1976. �...,----------. -.~--._--./ ..-:--- - -" ~ '-.'. . ~---- -y~ - - - ----r4· ; --~~~,/ ~ ~./-¥ --r~.;EaQtS .Fae , /,. ".' '. PUBLISHED THE CO COl--;RADO PU BLISH ED BY THE LORADO - - 1.. DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION OF WILDLIFE WilDLIFE DIVISION ' A ,iii ~ ~ I~", '., . ~:. / ~" ... Number 103 Number Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game A NIGHT-VIEWING NIGHT-VIEWING DEVICE DEVICE TO MONITOR MONITOR ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES OF WILDLIFE! WILDLIFE 1 managers have have been limited limited in attempts Wildlife managers attempts study the the behavior animals by their their inability inability to study behavior of animals to make make accurate observations at at night. night. Several Several accurate observations workers have have reported reported on various various systems systems that that workers have been used nighttime activities activities of have used to monitor monitor nighttime different wildlife (Swanson and Sargeant different wildlife species species (Swanson and Sargeant 1972, Ozoga and and Gysel 1965, 1965, Richter Richter 1955, 1955, and and 1972, 1973). This This leaflet describes a nightReed et al. 1973). leaflet describes night• viewing device similar similar to that that used Swanson viewing used by Swanson and Sargeant Sargeant (1972) (1972) whereby natural and whereby available available natural light is intensified. intensified. As a result, result, this this device is not light not limited to shor shortt viewing viewing distances distances as were older limited infra-red instruments. instruments. infra-red DESCRIPTION AND USE DESCRIPTION As part study to measure measure the part of a research research study the carrying capacity capacity of mule mule deer winter winter ranges carrying ranges it it became necessary necessary to determine determine activity activity patterns patterns of became deer throughout throughout 24-hr periods. periods. A night-viewing night-viewing dee1· developed by Apollo Lasers, Lasers, device (Model 221) developed Javelin Division, Division, of Los Angeles, Angeles, California California2 2 was was Javelin nocturnal measurements measurements purchased to permit permit nocturnal purchased (Fig. 1). 1). The The objective objective lens lens collects collects available available light light and within the unit similar similar to the and focuses it within the unit the way way a camera lens light. The The focused light light is then then camera lens focuses light. converted into into electrical electrical energy energy in an an "image "image converted intensifier" tube charged by a single single 4.54.5intensifier" tube which which is charged volt mercury battery. battery. The energy is amplified volt mercury The energy amplified approximately 50,000 times times and and then then converted converted approximately back to light light at the other the image image back at the other end of the intensifier tube. This amplified scene scene is then intensifier This amplified then displayed on a phosphor at the the back back of the the displayed phosphor screen screen at tube. The The recreated scene is then the recreated scene then viewed by the observer through through an eyepiece lens "biocular" observer lens or a "biocular" viewer. We made made observations observations of deer within within a 10-acre We where distances distances from an an observaobserva(4-ha) pasture pasture where tion tower to animal 10-600ft tion animal could vary vary from 10-600 ft (3IB3 m). As a result, it was was necessary necessary to equip the the 183 result, it 1 1 Contribution 2 W-38-R. Contribu.tion from from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W•38-R. of brand names names in this this publication benefit of of the Use of publication is for the the benefit reader and dues does not imply endorsement endorsement of of thi.$ this product by the the rc>a der and nut imply product by Colorado Division of Wildlife. Wildlife. Col.orado Diuision of night-viewing night-viewing device with with a 300-mm telephoto telephoto lens among activities activities at at the the longer longer to discriminate discriminate among distances. To reduce reduce observer observer eye fatigue fatigue the distances. the device also comes equipped equipped with with the the biocular biocular displays a television-type television-type image image viewer which which displays with a green green tint. tint. The The night-viewing night-viewing system system is very with very portable, weighing less than and than 12 lbs (5.4 kg), and portable, weighing can be supported supported by an ordinary camera camera tripod. can an ordinary The current current list list price system is apThe price for the the system proximately proximately $3,500. $3,500. During two winters night-viewing During winters of use the the night-viewing has performed performed satisfactorily satisfactorily under under a wide device has array of nocturnal nocturnal light light conditions, conditions, including array including snowstorms. A clear clear moonlight moonlight night night with snowstorms. with a snow snow background provides provides optimum optimum conditions. conditions. In In background situations where where discriminations discriminations among among different different situations animal activities, such animals, are are animal activities, such as counts counts of animals, "' Fig. 1. A light-intensifying device mounted mounted on on a tripod Fig. I. light-intensifying device tripod was used to monitor monitor nocturnal nocturnal behavior of captive captive was used behavior of mule deer. deer. (Photo (Photo by Paul Paul F. Gilbert) Gilbert) mule �not not required, required, the the effective effective distance distance of the the nightnightviewing viewing device device could extend extend beyond beyond the the 600-ft (183- m) limitation limitation encountered encountered in in this this study. study. OTHER POTENTIAL POTENTIAL USES USES The The potential potential uses uses of the the night-viewing night-viewing devices devices are are numerous numerous and and are are really really limited limited only only by the the capability capability of the the instrument instrument and and the the usds user's imagination. agination. Some Some obvious obvious possibilities possibilities are: locating locating ground-roosting ground-roosting birds birds (waterfowl, (waterfowl, pheasant, pheasant, quail, quail, sage sage grouse, grouse, etc.) for for subsequent subsequent capture capture and and marking; by marking; aiding aiding in in damage damage assessments assessments monitoring big damage to monitoring big game game causing causing damage haystacks haystacks and and crops; crops; evaluating evaluating deer highway highway crossing crossing aids aids such such as underpasses, underpasses, overpasses, overpasses, and and one-way one-way deer deer gates; gates; observing observing and and documendocumenting ting activities activities of nocturnal nocturnal birds birds and and mammals; mammals; and and recording recording illegal illegal activities activities of hunters hunters for evidence evidence in in court court cases. cases. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Ozoga, mechanical Ozoga, J. J., and and L. W. Gyse1. Gysel. 1965. A mechanical recorder recorder for measuring measuring deer deer activity. activity. J. Wildl Wildl. Manage. Manage. 29(3):632-634. 29(3):632-634. Reed,D. Reed, D. F., T T..M. M. Pojar, Pojar, and and T. N N.. Woodard..1973.A Woodard. 1973. A video tirn e-lapse system time-lapse system for wildlifesurveillance. wildlife surveillance. Colo. Div. Div. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Game Game Wo. Info. Leafl. Leaf!. Noi. No. 94. 3 p. Richter, technique for night Richter, W W... C. 1955. A technique night idenidenof J. Wildl. Manage. tification tification of animals. animals. Manage. 19(1):159-160. 19(1):159-160. Swanson, Swanson, G. A., and and A. B. Sargeant. Sargeant. 1972. ObserObservation vation of of nighttime nighttime behavior behavior of of ducks. ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. Manage. 36(3):959-961. 36(3):959-961. Len H. H. Carpenter Len Carpenter Asst. Asst. Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher May May 1976 17096 �PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF WILDLIFE Game Information Leaflet Number 104 A LIFE-TABLE FOR MANAGING DEER POPULATIONS1 Big game seasons are established several months prior to the actual hunt. This practice necessitates setting harvest objectives and seasons and estimating the number of permits to issue without knowing the size or composition of the population that will be hunted. As an aid in establishing seasons and numbers of permits, life-tables can prove valuable in predicting pre-hunting-season population size and composition. Life-tables for mammals have been developed by Deevey (1947), Brown (1961), and Smith et al. (1969). Since 1968, life-tables for deer in Middle Park have been used to predict prehunting-season population size and composition in order to establish appropriate hunting seasons. This leaflet shows an example of the life-table used in Middle Park. Fundamental to the process are measurements of population size, composition, mortality, and reproduction. Data presented regarding mortality and reproduction may not apply to other areas of Colorado. However, this example illustrates the types of data needed to construct a life-table. To construct the life-table, the following procedure was used (see Table 1): A. Winter Population Estimate. Each January deer were censused using a quadrat sampling system (Gill 1969a). The composition of the estimated winter population was based on the composition of deer classified from a helicopter during the previous December. For example, if 1,500 deer were classified in December as 30 percent bucks, 40 percent does, and 30 percent fawns, these percentages would be projected onto the population estimate (Table 1). Fawns were allocated as 55 percent bucks and 45 percent does, based on composition of fawns killed by hunters during regular hunting seasons. B. Winter Mortality. Winter mortality was estimated each year by walking randomly located strip-transects and counting the number 1 Contribution from Federal Aid Project W-38-R. of dead deer on these transects (Gill 1969b). Number of dead deer found was projected to the entire winter range to estimate the total number of deer dying, which was computed as a percentage of the winter population estimate (Table 1). Sex and age composition of winter mortality was based on dead deer found on transects. Winter mortality was then subtracted from the winter population estimate to arrive at a Spring Population estimate (Table 1). C. Pre-Fawning Population. At this point, fawns were incorporated into the adult population as yearlings (Table 1). Buck and doe fawns were added to the existing adult buck and doe fractions. Percentages of yearling bucks and does were calculated by dividing number of buck fawns by number of adult bucks, etc. (Table 1). These percentages can be compared to the percent yearlings harvested during hunting seasons. D. Fawn Production. This estimate was for net fawn production, that is, after mortality on fawns during summer and hunting seasons had occurred. The theoretically best time to obtain this estimate is prior to hunting seasons through sex and age classification counts. However, in many parts of Colorado, including Middle Park, sample sizes obtained during pre-season counts are usually inadequate because insufficient snow precludes finding ample deer to classify. This not only results in a small sample but also can provide a biased estimate of the fawn:doe ratio. A reasonable alternative is to conduct classification counts in December after the hunting season, when sufficient snow is present. Thus, fawn production was measured several months after the fawning period. The ratio of fawns:100 does measured in December was used to estimate the net fawn crop. A ratio of 80 fawns:100 does in December, applied to approximately 5,000 does in the pre-fawning population, resulted in an estimated increment of about 4,000 fawns (Table 1). Allocating this fawn increment at 55 percent bucks and 45 percent does and adding the incre- �TABLE 1. Life-table for deer in Middle Park, C o l o r a d o Population Data Bucks Does Buck Fawns Doe Fawns Total Winter Population (January census) 3,000 (30.0%) 4,000 (40.0%) 1,650 (16.5%) 1,350 (13.5%) 10,000 (100%) Winter Mortality (8.0% of winter pop.) 218 (27.3%) 213 (26.6%) 203 (25.4%) 166 (10.7%) 800 (100%) Spring Population 2,782 (30.2%) 3,787 (41.2%) 1,447 (15.7%) 1,184 (12.9%) 9,200 (100%) Pre-Fawning Population 4,229 (46.0%) 4,971 (54.0%) Fawn Production (0.80 fawns:doe) 9,200 (100%) 2,187 (55.0%) 1,790 (45.0%) 3,977 (100%) Pre-Hunt Population 4,229 (32.1%) 4,971 (37.7%) 2,187 (16.6%) 1,790 (13.6%) 13,177 (100%) Harvest - Early Seasons 50 (50.0%) 40 (40.0%) 6 ( 6.0%) 4 ( 4.0%) 100 (100%) Wounding Loss (20% of harvest) 10 (50.0%) 8 (40.0%) 1 ( 6.0%) 1 ( 4.0%) 20 (100%) Harvest - Regular Season 780 (65.0%) 300 (25.0%) 84 ( 7.0%) 36 ( 3.0%) 1,200 (100%) Wounding Loss (20% of harvest) 156 (65.0%) 60 (25.0%) 17 ( 7.0%) 7 ( 3.0%) 240 (100%) December PostSeason Population 3,233 (27.8%) 4,563 (39.3%) 2,079 (17.9%) 1,742 (15.0%) 11,617 (100%) ment to the pre-fawning population resulted in estimates of the Pre-Hunting-Season population size and composition (Table 1). E. Harvest and Wounding Loss. Harvest estimates were based on results of hunter surveys. Wounding loss was arbitrarily set at 20 percent of the legal harvest, based on limited information in the literature and from hunter surveys. This value may vary between areas and seasons. Composition of the wounding loss was allocated in the same proportion as animals that were legally harvested (Table 1). F. Post-Season Population. The postseason population was estimated by subtracting the harvest and wounding loss from the prehunting population (Table 1). The calculated composition of this population could be compared to the composition measured during ensuing sexand age-classification counts in December. The calculated population size could be compared to the ensuing January census estimate. Percent Yearling Bucks-Does 34.2-23.8 Thus, after estimating the size of the winter population in January or February, a life-table could be constructed by March to predict fall population size and aid in establishing harvest objectives, seasons, and type and quanitity of permits. LITERATURE CITED Brown, E. R. 1961. The black-tailed deer of western Washington. Washington State Game Dept. Biol. Bull. 13. 124 p. Deevey, E. S., Jr. 1947. Life tables for natural populations of animals. Quart. Rev. Biol. 22:283-314. Gill, R. B. 1969a. A quadrat count system for estimating game population. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks Game Info. Leafl. No. 76. 2 p. —. 1969b. Middle Park Deer Study-productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July (1):123-140. Smith, R. H., T. J. McMichael, and H. G. Shaw. 1969. Decline of a desert deer population. Wildl. Digest, Arizona Game and Fish Dept. 8 p. DISCUSSION Initially, imprecise estimates of population size, composition, mortality, and reproduction may be used to generate a first approximation of a lifetable. After a few years of gathering the necessary biological information, reasonable estimates of mortality and reproduction can be generated using averages from several years. David J. Freddy Wildlife Researcher R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Research Leader September 1977 �Game Information Leaflet HEART-RATE MEASUREMENTS Two areas of mule deer research have recently been initiated in Colorado. One thrust concerns estimating "carrying capacity" of deer winter ranges (Carpenter 1976). The second effort will focus on the effects of harassment on mule deer (Freddy 1977). Within both research projects, ascertaining heart-rates of deer will be important. The idea of a finite carrying or grazing capacity for a range is not new, having been advanced by Stoddart and Smith (1955). However, the concept of carrying capacity based on energetics of wild animals is relatively new (Moen 1973). During winter an animal survives by expending energy (fat reserves) to consume energy (plant material). To properly estimate carrying capacity the amount of plant energy available to the animal must be determined and the amount of energy the animal expends tc consume the plant energy must be determined. Simply stated, an energy budget must be formulated for the animal. Nutritional values of plants can be approximated by chemical analyses (Robbins et al. 1975).However, energy expended by free-ranging animals is difficult to estimate. An accepted technique used to measure energy expended by an animal is to measure oxygen consumed (Brody 1945). This can be accomplished by using a facemask apparatus or placing the animal in a respiration chamber. Each of these approaches restricts the activity of the animal. An indirect method of estimating energy expended without restricting the activity of the animal involves measuring heart-rate. Several studies (Bradfield et al. 1969; Datta and Ramanathan 1969; Morhardt and Morhardt 1969; Webster 1967; Wyndham et al. 1959) have established a relatively strong relationship between heart-rate and oxygen consumption, thereby indirectly estimating energy expended. Work by Kautz (1977) established a positive I Contribution from Federal Aid Project W-38-R. Number 105 IN MULE DEER RESEARCHl relationship between heart-rate and oxygen consumed in semitame mule deer fawns. Holter et al. (1976) also found a positive relationship between heart-rate and metabolic rate in captive, adult white-tailed deer. These studies form a basis for pursuing heart-rate monitoring of free-ranging deer to estimate energy expended by animals and thus potentially improve estimates of carrying capacity. Measurements of heart-rate can also aid in assessing the effects of harassment on deer. According to Gove (1965), to harass means to worry or impede by repeated raids, or exhaust, fatigue, or annoy continually or chronically. Implicit in this definition is an emotional stress (worry) and a physical stress (fatigue). Ideally, then, if we are to quantify the effects of harassment on deer, both types of stress should be investigated. The close relationship between the adrenal hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine, secreted during emotional stress and elevation of heart-rate is well documented in humans (Ganong 1973). Changes in heart-rate can thus serve as an index to emotional stress, or stress not necessarily eliciting an overt behavioral response. Heart-rate can also quantify physical stress. The true cost of harassment to deer is the unnecessary expenditure of energy to overtly respond to harassment (Geist 1971; Severinghaus 1975). If heart-rate can function as an estimator of energy expended, then the physical cost of harassment can be ascertained. Recent advances in microbiotelemetry (Cupal et al. 1974) provide instrumentation that allows monitoring of heart-rates of free-ranging deer. A heart-pulse transmitter is surgically implanted near the sternum of a deer. This transmitter transmits the heart-pulse signal to a transceiver neck-collar on the deer. The neck-collar retransmits the signal to allow radio-monitoring of heart-rate for up to 5 miles (Figs. 1 and 2). This �•A Fig. 1. Transceiver neck-collar, left, and heart-pulse transmitter, right, used to monitor heart-rates of deer. Two stainless steel electrodes exit from transmitter within a protective teflon plastic tube and surface outside the tube (points A and B) to contact animal tissue. (Photo by F. Waugh) Fig. 2. Receiver and strip-chart recorder used to receive heart-rate signals. (Photo by D. J. Freddy) system places minimal restraints on deer and will be used in carrying capacity and harassment research. LITERATURE CITED Bradfield, R. B., P. B. Huntzicher, and G. J. Fruehan. 1969. Simultaneous comparison of respirometer and heart-rate telemetry techniques as measures of human energy expenditure. Am.J. Clin. Nutr. 22:696-700. Brody, S. 1945. Bioenergetics and growth. Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York. 1023 p. Carpenter, L. H. 1976. Middle Park deer study deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildlife Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R.Game Res. Rept. July (2): 285-405. Cupal, J. J., A. L. Ward, andR. W. Weeks. 1974.A repeater type biotelemetry system for use on wild big game animals. Bio. Med. Sci. Instrumentation 10:145-152. Datta, S. R., and N. L. Ramanathan. 1969. Energy expenditure in work predicted from heart rate and pulmonary ventilation. J. Appl. Physiol. 26:297-302. Freddy, D. J. 1977. Middle Park deer study snowmobile harassment of mule deer. Colo. Div. Wildlife Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R.Game Res. Rept. July (2):89-104. Ganong, W. F. 1973. Review of medical physiology. Lange Medical Publ., Los Altos, Calif. 577 p. Geist, V. 1971. Is big game harassment harmful? Oil Week June 14:12-13. Gove, P. B. (ed.) 1965. Webster's seventh new collegiate dictionary. G. & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Mass. 1221 p. Holter, J. B., W. E. Urban, Jr., H. H. Hayes, and H. Silver. 1976. Predicting metabolic rate from telemetered heart rate in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 40(4):626-629. Kautz, M. A. 1977. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation, Appendix B. Colo. Div. Wildlife Fed. AidProj. W-38-R.Game Res. Rept. J uly(2):78-83. Moen, A. N. 1973. Wildlife ecology. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. 458 p. Morhardt, J. E., and S. S. Morhardt. 1969. Field measurements of mammalian metabolic rates using radiotelemetry of heart rates. Am. Zool. 9:1093. Robbins,C. T.,P.J. VanSoest, W. W.Mautz,and A. N. Moen. 1975. Feed analysis and digestion with reference to white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1):67-79. Severinghaus, C. W., and B. F. Tuller. 1975. Wintering deer versus snowmobiles. The Conservationist 29(6):31. Stoddart, L. A., and A. D. Smith. 1955. Range management. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. New York. 433 p. Webster, A. J. F. 1967. Continuous measurement of heart rate as an indicator of the energy expenditure in sheep. Br. J. Nutr. 21:769-785. Wyndham, C. H., N. B. Strydom, J. S. Maritz, J. F. Morrison, J. Peter, and Z. U. Potgieter. 1959. Maximum oxygen intake and maximum heart rate during strenuous work. J. Appl. Physiol. 14(6):927-936. David J. Freddy Wildlife Researcher September 1977 �- QU.t d® ~ ,~f.PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO :;J DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF WILDLIFE f. Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet ,d ~ ' ' .... ... 1Y1 • I I Number 105 HEART-RATE HEART-RATE MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENTS IN IN MULE MULE DEER DEER RESEARCH RESEARCHl 1 Two areas areas of mule deer research research have have recently recently been been initiated initiated in in Colorado. One thrust thrust concerns concerns estimating estimating "carrying "carrying capacity" capacity" of deer winter winter ranges ranges (Carpenter (Carpenter 1976). 1976). The The second second effort will the effects of harassment harassment on mule mule deer focus on the (Freddy (Freddy 1977). 1977). Within Within both both research research projects, projects, ascertaining ascertaining heart-rates heart-rates of dBer deer will be important. tant. The idea idea of a finite finite carrying carrying or grazing grazing capacicapacity for a range range is not not new, having having been been advanced advanced by Stoddart Stoddart and and Smith Smith (1955). (1955). However, However, the concept concept of carrying carrying capacity capacity based based on energetics energetics of wild animals animals is relatively relatively new (Moen 1973). 1973). During During winter winter an animal animal survives survives by expending expending energy energy (fat reserves) reserves) to consume consume energy energy (plant (plant material). material). To properly properly estimate estimate carrying carrying capacity capacity the the amount amount of plant plant energy energy available available to the the animal animal must must be determined determined and and the the amount amount of energy the the animal animal expends expends tc consume consume the the plant plant energy energy energy must must be determined. determined. Simply Simply stated, stated, an energy energy budget budget must must be formulated formulated for the the animal. animal. Nutritional values Nutritional values of plants plants can be approximated by chemical chemical analyses analyses (Robbins (Robbins et al. proximated 1975). However, energy 1975).However, energy expended expended by free-ranging free-ranging animals is difficult difficult to estimate. estimate. An accepted accepted techanimals nique used to measure measure energy energy expended expended by an nique animal animal is to measure measure oxygen consumed consumed (Brody 1945).This This can be accomplished accomplished by using using a face1945). mask mask apparatus apparatus or placing placing the the animal animal in a respiration respiration chamber. chamber. Each Each of these these approaches approaches restricts restricts the the activity activity of the the animal. animal. indirect method method of estimating estimating energy energy exexAn indirect pended pended without without restricting restricting the the activity activity of the the animal involves involves measuring measuring heart-rate. heart-rate. Several Several animal studies (Bradfield (Bradfield et al. 1969; 1969; Datta Datta and and studies Ramanathan 1969; Ramanathan 1969; Morhardt Morhardt and and Morhardt Morhardt 1969; Webster Webster 1967; 1967; Wyndham Wyndham et al. 1959) 1959) have have 1969; established established a relatively relatively strong strong relationship relationship between heart-rate heart-rate and and oxygen oxygen consumption, consumption, between thereby indirectly indirectly estimating estimating energy energy expended. expended. thereby Kautz (1977) (1977) established established a positive positive Work by Kautz 1 I Contribution Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-38-R. Cun tribution from from Federal relationship relationship between between heart-rate heart-rate and and oxygen oxygen consumed Holter et al. sumed in semitame semitame mule deer fawns. fawns. Holter al. (1976) (1976) also found found a positive positive relationship relationship between between heart-rate heart-rate and and metabolic metabolic rate rate in captive, captive, adult adult white-tailed deer. These These studies studies form a basis white-tailed basis for pursuing pursuing heart-rate heart-rate monitoring monitoring of free-ranging free-ranging deer to estimate estimate energy energy expended expended by animals animals and and thus thus potentially potentially improve improve estimates estimates of carrying carrying capacity. capacity. Measurements Measurements of heart-rate heart-rate can can also also aid in assessing assessing the effects of harassment harassment on deer. According According to Gove (1965), (1965), to harass harass means means to worry worry or impede impede by repeated repeated raids,. raids, or exhaust, exhaust, fatigue, fatigue, or annoy annoy continually continually or chronically. chronically. Implicit in this this definition definition is an an emotional emotional stress stress Implicit (worry) and Ideally, and a physical physical stress stress (fatigue). (fatigue). Ideally, then, if we are are to quantify quantify the the effects effects of of harassharassthen, ment ment on deer, both both types types of stress stress should should be investigated. investigated. The The close relationship relationship between between the the adrenal adrenal hormones, hormones, epinephrine epinephrine and and norepinephrine, norepinephrine, secreted during during emotional emotional stress stress and and elevation elevation of secreted heart-rate is well documented documented in in humans heart-rate humans (Ganong 1973). 1973). Changes Changes in heart-r:ate heart-rate can can thus (Ganong thus serve as anindex not an index to emotional emotional stress, stress, or stress stress not necessarily necessarily eliciting eliciting an overt overt behavioral behavioral response. sponse. Heart-rate can can also quantify quantify physi physical stress. Heart-rate cal stress. true cost cost of harassment harassment to deer deer is the The true the unnecessary expenditure expenditure of energy energy to overtly overtly unnecessary (Geist 1971; respond respond to harassment harassment 1971; Severinghaus 1975). 1975). If If heart-rate heart-rate can can function function as as an an inghaus estimator estimator of energy energy expended, expended, then then the the physical physical cost of harassment harassment can can be ascertained. ascertained. cost Recent advances advances in microbiotelemetry microbiotelemetry (Cupal (Cupal Recent et al. 1974) that allows 1974) provide provide instrumentation instrumentation that allows monitoring of heart-rates heart-rates of free-ranging free-ranging deer. A monitoring heart-pulse heart-pulse transmitter transmitter is surgically surgically implanted implanted near near the the sternum sternum of a deer. This This transmitter transmitter transmits transceiver transmits the the heart-pulse heart-pulse signal signal to a transceiver neck-collar neck-collar neck-collar on the the deer. The The neck-collar retransmits retransmits the signal signal to to allow radio-monitoring radio-monitoring heart-rate for up to 5 miles (Figs. Jl 1 and and 2). This This of heart-rate �•A B Fig. 1. Transceiver nd heart -pulse Transceiver neck-collar, neck-collar, left left,, aand heart-pulse transmitter, transmitter, right, right, used used to monitor monitor heart-rates heart-rates of deer. n less steel deer. Two stai. stainless steel electrodes electrodes exit exit from transmitter transmitter within within aa protective protective teflon teflon plastic plastic tube and and surface surface outside outside the the tube (points (points A A and B) B) to contact contact animal animal tissue. tissue. (Photo (Photo by F. Waugh) Fig. 2. ecorder used 2. Receiver Receiver and and strip-chart strip-chart rrecorder used to receive heart-rate heart-rate signals. signals. (Photo (Photo by D. J J.. Freddy) Freddy) receive system places places minimal minimal restraints restraints on deer and and system will be used used in in carrying carrying capacity capacity and and harassment harassment research. research. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Bradfield, Bradfield, R. B., P. B. Huntzicher, Huntzicher, and and G. J. J. Fruehan. Fruehan. 1969. 1969. Simultaneous Simultaneous comparison comparison of respirometer and and heart-rate heart-rate telemetry telemetry techrespirometer niques niques as measures measures of human human energy energy expenexpenditure. diture. Am.J. Am.J. Clin. Clin. Nutr. Nutr. 22:696-700. Brody, Brody, S. S. 1945. Bioenergetics Bioenergetics and and growth. growth. Reinhold Publ. Publ. Corp., Corp., New New York. 1023 p. Reinhold Carpenter, Carpenter, L. H. 1976. Middle Middle Park Park deer deer study study deer habitat habitat evaluation. evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildlife Wildlife Game Res. Fed. Aid Proj. Proj. W-38-R. W-38-R.Game Res. Rept. Rept. July July (2): (2): 285-405 285-405... Cupal,J.,J., R. W. Weeks.1974.A Cupal, J. J., A. L. Ward, Ward, and andR. Weeks. 1974.A em for use repeateir type biotelemetry repeater type biotelemetry syst system use on wild big big game game animals. animals. Bio. Med. Sci. Instrumentation strumentation 10:145-152. 10:145-152. Datta, 1969. Datta, S. S. R., and and N. L. Ramanathan. Ramanathan. Energy Energy expenditure expenditure in in work work predicted predicted from from heart heart rate rate and and pulmonary pulmonary ventilation. ventilation. J. J. Appl. Appl. Physiol. Physiol. 26:297-302. Middle Park Freddy, Freddy, D. J. J. 1977. Middle Park deer deer study study snowmobile snowmobile harassment harassment of of mule mule deer. deer. Colo. Game Res. Div. Wildlife Aid Proj. Wildlife Fed. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. W-38-R.Game Rept. July July (2):89-104. (2):89-104. Ganong, Ganong, W. F. 1973. Review Review of medical medical physiology. physiology. Lange Lange Medical Medical Publ., Publ., Los Altos, Altos, Calif. 5'77 577 p. Geist, Geist, V. 1971. 1971. Is Is big big game game harassment harassment harmful? harmful? Oil Week June June 14:12-13. 14:12-13. Gove, P. B. (ed.) 1965. Webster's Webster's seventh seventh new new collegiate collegiate dictionary. dictionary. G. & C. Merriam Merriam Co., Springfield, Springfield, Mass. Mass. 1221 p. Urban, Jr., Holter, Holter, J. B., W. E. E. Urban, Jr., H. H. Hayes, Hayes, and and Silver. 1976. Predicting Predicting metabolic metabolic rate rate from from H. Silver. telemetiered telemetered heart heart rate rate in in white-tailed white-tailed deer. deer. J. J. Wildl. Manage. 40(4):626-629. Manage. 40(4):626-629. Kautz, Kautz, M. A. 1977. Middle Middle Park Park deer deer studystudy - deer deer habitat habitat evaluation, evaluation, Appendix Appendix B. Colo. Div. W-38-R. Grune Res. Rept. Wildlife AidProj. W-38-R.Game Wildlife Fed. AidProj. Rept. July(2):78-83. J uly(2):78-83. Moen, A. N. 1973. Wildlife Wildlife ecology. W. H. Freeman Freeman and and Co., San San Francisco. Francisco. 458 p. Morhardt, Morhardt, J.E., J. E., and and S.S. S. S. Morhardt. Morhardt. 1969. Field Field measur, e ments of mammalian measurements mammalian metabolic metabolic rates rates using using radiotelemetry radiotelemetry of of heart heart rates. rates. Am. Zool. 9:1093. 9:1093. P. J. Van Soest, W. W.W. Mautz, and Robbins, Robbins,C.IC. T., T.,P.J. VanSoest, W.Mautz,and Feed analysis analysis and and digestion digestion A. N. Moen. 1975. Feed with reference reference to white-tailed J. Wildl. with white-tailed deer. J. Manage. Manage. 39(1):67-79. 39(1):67-79. Severinghaus, C. W., and and B. F F.. Tuller. Tuller. 1975. Severinghaus, Wintering Wintering deer deer versus versus snowmobiles. snowmobiles. The The Conservationist 29(6):31. 29(6):31. servationist Stoddart, Stoddart, L. A., and and A. D. Smith. Smith. 1955. Range Range management. management. McGraw-Hill McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. Inc. New New York. 4:33 433 p. Webster, A. J. J. F. 1967. Continuous Continuous measurement measurement Webster, of heart the energy heart rate rate as as an an indicator indicator of the energy expenditure in in sheep. sheep. Br. Br. J. J. Nutr. Nutr. 21:769-785. expenditure Wyndham, Wyndham, C.H., C. H., N. B. Strydom, Strydom, J. J. S. Maritz, Maritz, J. J. F. Morrison, Morrison, J. J. Peter, Peter, and and Z. U. Potgieter. Potgieter. 1959. Maxim1llm Maximum oxygen oxygen intake intake and and maximum maximum heart heart rate rate du:ring during strenuous strenuous work. work. JJ.. Appl. Appl. Physiol. Physiol. 14(6):92:7-936. 14(6):927-936. David David J. J. Freddy Freddy Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher September 1977 September �r tdc,or FaGts ts PUBLISIH:D THE COLORADO PUBLISHED av BY THE COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT m: OF NA'TURAL NATURAL RF.SOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION oi:: W\.LDUFE DIVISION OF WilDLIFE ' J Number 106 106 Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet PROCEDURES PROCEDURES FOR FOR REARING REARING WILD WILD RUMINANTS RUMINANTS IN IN CAPTIVITY CAPTIVITYl 1 Each Each spring spring and and summer summer Division Division of Wildlife field personnel personnel al:e are faced faced with with the the problem problem of rearing rearing and and maintaining apparently abandoned maintaining apparently abandoned young young wild ruminants. ruminan ts. This This period period offosterhood of fosterhood may may vary vary from a few hours hours to several several months. months. Regardless Regardless of the the length length of captivity, a1owledge of the captivity, 1knowledge the care, feeding, feeding, and and transportation transportation of these these young young ruminants ruminants is crucial crucial to their their growth growth and and survival. survival. Each Each young young animal animal has has individual eeds, depending individual nneeds, depending on the the species, species, previous previous nutritional suite, nutritional state, age, physical physical condition, condition, and and temperament. temperament. Offspring Offspring of many many wild wild species species have have been been reared reared successfully successfully in in captivity captivity with with numerous numerous techniques techniques (Murphy (Murphy 1960; 1960; Silver Silver 1961; Trainer Trainer 1962; 1962; Youngson Youngson 1970; Reichert Reichert 1972; 1972; Hightower Hightower 1973; 1973; Buckland Buckland et al. ai. 1975; Schwartz Schwartz et al. ai. 1976; 1976; Halford Halford and and Alldredge Alldredge 1978; 1978; and and Hobbs Hobbs and and Baker Baker 1979). 1979). In addition. addition, each each year year a few conscientious conscientious farmers farmers and and ranchers ranchers rear rear young young ruminants ruminants with with a variety variety of ''home-brewed "home-brewed formulas". formulas". Obviously Obviously there there is no single single procedure procedure for rearing rearing wild wild ruminants. ruminants. The The purpose purpose of this this leaflet leaflet is to to describe describe general general procedures specifically specifically relevant relevant to the the maintenance maintenance procedures of wild wild young young ruminants. ruminants. These These procedures procedures are are based based on knowledge knowledge of the the nutritional nutritional requirements requirements of young young ruminants ruminants and and on experience experience at at the the Division Division of Wildlife Research Research Center, Center, Fort Fort Collins, Collins, in successfulsuccessfulrearing mule mule deer, elk, bighorn bighorn sheep, sheep, Rocky ly rearing Mountain Mountain goats, goats, and and antelope antelope in captivity. captivity. FEEDING Equipment Eight-ounce re Eight-ounce baby baby bottles bottles and and formula form~la nipples nipples aare sufficient sufficient for small small ruminants ruminants throughout throughout the the milk feeding feeding period. period. Larger Larger capacity capacity bottles bottles with with lamb lamb nipples nipples are are required required for larger larger ruminants ruminants as as intake intake increases. increases. Preferably, Preferably, each each bottle bottle is numbered numbered and and used used to feed only only one animal. animal. Nipple Nipple holes holes must must be enlarged larged to facilitate facilitate flow of the the formula; formula; this this is is easily easily accomplished accomplished with with a heated heated sewing sewing needle. SterilizaSterilization of nipples nipples and and bottles bottles is not not necessary; necessary; they they are are washed washed in soap soap and and hot hot water water and and rinsed rinsed thoroughly. thoroughly. Separate Separate sponges sponges are used used to clean clean the the animal's animal's facial facial and and rear rear areas. areas. Facial Facial sponges sponges can can be kept kept and and •Contribulion. 'Contribution from from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project Project W-126-R. washed washed with with milk milk hottlcs. bottles. Rear Rear sponges sponges must must be kept kept and and washed washed separately separately and and are are disinfected disinfected with an antiseptic antiseptic soh.1tion solution and and rinsed rinsed clean clean with with water water after after each each use. Milk Milk Formula The The base base formula formula consists consists of 2 parts parts homogenized homogenized whole cow's milk to 1 part part canned canned evaporated evaporated milk. whole This formula is supplemented This formula supplemented with with buttermilk buttermilk twice twice each each day day to promote promote development development of lactvbacillus Lactobacillus in the the abomasum. abomasum. The The amount amount of buttermilk buttermilk added added totals ). OnemJ totals 1/10 1/10 the the daily daily formula formula intake intake (Table (Table l1). One ml of a liquid liquid multiple multiple baby baby vitamin vitamin supplement supplement (Vi(ViDaylin, Daylin, Ross Laboratory) Laboratory) is also also added added to the the formula formula daily daily or on alternate alternate days days until until the the two-feedings-pertwo-feedings-perday day schedule schedule begins. begins. Buttermilk Buttermilk and and vitamin vitamin supplements supplements are are added added to base base formula formula duringduring different different feedings feedings - never never in the the same same feeding. feeding. Feeding Feeding Schedules Schedules Suggested Suggested milk milk feeding feeding schedules schedules based based on animal animal ages ere ages are are presented presented in Table Table l. 1. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, th there are no no totally totally reliable reliable criteria criteria for determining determining the the age of young young ruminants. ruminants. Aging Aging criteria criteria which which have have been investigated for wild ruminants ruminants found found in Colorado Colorado investigated include include condition condition and and growth growth of hooves, hooves, degree degree of healing of the the umbilicus, umbilicus, behavior, behavior, and and weight. weight. healing Bottoms of hooves hooves of white-tailed white-tailed deer deer during during the the Bottoms first first day day after after birth birth ru·e are covered covered with with a soft, sulfursulfuryellow pad pad {Haugen (Haugen and and Speake Speake 1958; 1958; White et et al. at. 1972). During During the the first first 27 days days after after birth birth the the hooves hooves 1972). of white-tailed white-tailed deer reportedly reportedly grow 0.45 mm each each day day as measured measured along along the the front front edge of the the outside outside halfof half of a front front hoof. hoof. This This new new growth growth can can be distinguished distinguished from hoof hoof material material present present at at birth birth by a ringed ringed groove groove (Haugen (Haugen and and Speake Speake 1958; 1958; White White et al. ai. UJ72). 1972). Robinette Robinette et al. ai. (1973) reported reported hooves hooves of mule mule deer grow about about 0.40 mm each each day during during the the first first 2.5 2.5 mo after birth. birth. Regression Regression equations equations based based on hind hind foot after measurements measurements (hoof (hoof tip to tipofcalcaneus) tip of calcaneus) developed developed by Robinette Robinette et al. at. (1973) (1973) with with captive captive mule mule deer deer were tested tested by Anderson Anderson (1975) with with wild mule mule deer. Resulting Resulting calculated calculated age values values ranged ranged from plausiplausible ble to impossible. impossible. Presence Presence or absence absence of a short short segment segment of the the umbilical umbilical cord is a useful useful criterion criterion for determining determining whether nimal is very whether or not not an aanimal very young. young. Condition Condition of the the umbilical umbilical cord cord after after birth birth in young young white-tailed white-tailed deer deer born born in captivity captivity in Alabama Alabama was was usually usually wet �TABLE 1 - Feeding Feeding schedule schedule for bottle-rearing ruminants TABLE bottle-rearing wild wild ruminants Small ruminants ruminants (Deer-Sheep(Deer-Sheep-Goats-Pronghorns) Small Goats- Pronghorns) Age, days 0-28 028 aa Feedings/day Feed fogs/day b b Volume/feeding, Volume/feeding, fluid oz (ml) (ml) Large ruminants ruminants {Elk} (Elk) Large c C c Age, days Feedings/day Feedings/da? Volume/feeding C Volume/feeding fluid oz (ml) (ml) 5 4 6.2-21. 5 (185(185-636) 6.2-21.5 636) 5 4 2 (59) (59) 0-2 14-42 14-42 (89) 33 (89) 3-27 27 3- b (95) 3.2 (95) 28-56 3 3-5 (89-148) 28-48 3 25.0 (739) 25,0 (739) 42-84 2 5-6 (148-177) 49-69 2 70-98 98 70- 11 (177) 6 (177) 70-92 70 - 92 1 (887) 30.0 (887) (1,419) 48.0 (1 ,419) overlap because because entries entries represent represent the range which animals animals have maintained on a Days Days overlap range of days during during which have been maintained corresponding feeding schedules. the corresponding feeding schedules. b Feeding schedules are as follows: A, A. 4-5 feedings/day, feedings/day, spaced spaced at regular regular intervals. intervals from 0600 to 2200 Feeding schedules hrs;; B. 3 feedings/day, mid-day, C. 2 feedings/day, feedings/day, morning hrs feedings/day, morning, morning~ midday, and evening; C. morning and evening; evening; D. 1 feeding/day, feeding/day, anytime anytime with with consistency consistency. . D. c Buttermilk should be base foTI11ula formula twice each 1/10 daily fo-.;muia formula intake. Buttermilk should be added to base each day and total totaJ. 1/10 Example--When feeding feeding 5 times/day oz/feeding the formula should should consist consist of 1.5 oz base base and Exampl-When times/day at 2 oz/feeding buttermilk during during 2 feedings. 0.5 oz buttermilk and fresh fresh during during day day I, 1, moist moist to scabbed scabbed by day day 2, and scabbed by day dropped and and naval naval healed healed scabbed day 33, and and scab scab dropped by day day 14 (Haugen (Haugen and and Speake Speake 1958). The The umbilical umbilical by cord was 1-3in. (2.5-7.6 cm) long dried on cord was always always 1-3 in. (2.5-7.6 long and and dried seven bighorn bighom sheep sheep lambs lambs when at 2-3 2-3days seven when captured captured at days age in Colorado Colorado (Woodard, (Woodard, unpublished unpublished data). data). of age Behavior is another another criterion criterion for determining determining if an Behavior if an animal is very very young. young. Jackson Jackson et al. al. (1972) (1972) reported animal reported white-tailed deer fawns fawns less less than would white-tailed deer than 1 week old would usually drop drop to the the ground and assume assume a freeze usually ground 3Jld freeze position when when alarmed. alarmed. Fawns Fawns 2-3 2-3weeks old would position weeks old would be just as liable liable to run when alarmed. alarmed. Onejust as run as as to freeze when day-old mule mule deer deerfawns remained immobile immobile when when ap· apday-old fawns remained proached (Truett (Truett 1977). This This freeze freeze response response is proached variable in deer 1972), and variable deer (White (White et al. 1972), and was was not not observed seven bighom sheep served during during the the capture capture of seven bighorn sheep lambs in Colorado Colorado (Woodard, (Woodard, unpublished lambs in unpublished data). data). Variability in in birth birth weights weights and and weight weight gains gains after after Variability birth makes weight weight a poor poor criterion criterion for estimating estimating birth makes ages of young young animals. animals. Weights newbom mule mule ages Weights of 172 newborn deer in in Colorado Colorado ranged from 6.0 to 11.0 lbs lbs (2. (2.7 deer ranged from 7 to 5.0 (Robinette et al. 1973). Birth Birth weights kg) (Robinette al. 1973). weights for whitewhitetailed deer as reported tailed deer reported by White White et al. (1972) (1972) ranged ranged from 2.5 to 8. 8.751bs Weights of ofbighom from 75 lbs (1.1 to 4.0 kg). Weights bighorn sheep born bom in captivity have have ranged ranged from 6.2 to 12. 12.7 sheep in captivity 7 (Geist 1971; Blunt Blunt et al. 1977). 1977). lbs (2.8 to 5.8 kg) (Geist If the age of a young animal is not known, it If the actual actual age young animal is not known, it based on estimated estimated age age and and adjustments adjustments made made is fed based amount of formula formula intake intake as required. required. It It is in the the amount considered important important to limit limit milk milk intake intake in young copsidered young ruminants to reduce reduce the of diarrhea diarrhea (F.M. ruminants the possibility possibility of Blunt, pers. pel's. comm.), comm.), so age age estimates estimates should should be Blunt, conservative, au.d and milk milk is fed accordingly. accordingly. Also, all conservative, animals, regardless estimated age, are are started started on animals, regardless of estimated the milk intake listed in Table 1 for the lowest lowest milk intake levels levels listed in Table about 2 days days to allow allow them adjust to the diet. about them to adjust the new diet. Feeding Procedures Feeding Procedures Acceptance the formula bottle and active musnursAcceptance of the formula bottle and active ing animal are are often difficult to achieve. achieve. Young Young ing by the the animal often difficult animals are are isolated an enclosed enclosed stall stall or small small animals isolated in an until they they have have begun begun nttrsing nursing and have room until and have accepted the the handler's handler's presence. possible, accepted presence. When When possible, animals are are reared reared by single person person and and contact contact animals by a single with other people kept to a minimum. minimum. Evidence Evidence with other people is kept indicates (Trindle (Trindle et al. stress on young indicates al. 1978) stress young ruminants may when they they are are fed by ruminants may be increased increased when numerous This increased may adverseadversenumerous people. people. This increased stress stress may ly affect affect the animals' immune immune systems. systems. Initially, Initially, the animals' many animals require restraint when first many animals require some some restraint when first attempts at feeding are made. made. This This is best accomattempts at feeding a.re best accomplished by kneeling kneeling behind behind the animal to prevent plished the animal prevent backward movement. When When the the nipple nipple is in place place a backward movement. small amount of milk, milk, warmed warmed to body small amount body temperature, temperature, is squeezed squeezed into into the the animal's animal's mouth. Simultaneously, mouth. Simultaneously, stroking of the throat and gently pressing on the sides strokingoftbethroatandgentlypressingon the sides of the swallowing and and sucking sucking the mouth mouth may may stimulate stimulate swallowing responses. Considerable Considerable patience patience is at this this responses. is important important at stage of the the rearing rearing effort. If an an animal animal refuses stage effort. If refuses the the bottle, the next attempt attempt is made made in 2-4 2-4 hI'S. Newbom bottle, the next hrs. Newborn animals (0-5 days days old) usually usually accept the bottle bottle and and animals (0-5 accept the begin actively actively nursing nursing within maximum of 2 days. days. begin within a maximum Older animals may take take as as much as 4 days days to begin Older animals may much as begin voluntary nursing. voluntary nursing. If animals animals begin begin weakenin.g weakening before accepting the If before accepting the milk bottle it it may may be necessary to force-feed the the milk bottle be necessary formula to prevent This problem problem has has formula prevent hypoglycemia. hypoglycemia. This arisen during during elk-rearing elk-rearing efforts efforts in in Colorado. Ifforcearisen Colorado. If forcefeeding is necessary, necessary, an an eye dropper dropper 01'. or soft plastic feeding soft plastic tube, fitted on the the barrel syringe filled tube, fitted barrel of a syringe filled with with formula, can can be inserted inserted in the comer corner of an an animal's animal's formula, in the mouth and and the the milk animal swallows swallows mouth milk delivered delivered as as the the animal (Hobbs and and Baker Baker 1979). This This procedure continued procedure is continued (Hobbs at feeding intervals intervals until until the animal is at regular regular feeding the animal sucking the tube; at this bottle can sucking the tube; at this time time a baby baby bottle can be presented. In most most situations, situations, forced last presented. forced feeding feeding is a last resort adequate intake intake of nutrients. resort for insuring insuring adequate nutrients. Extreme care care and and patience must be exercised exercised to Extreme patience JIJ.ust prevent young animals animals from choking and inhaling prevent young choking and inhaling fluid fluid into into the the lungs. lungs. Alfalfa hay leaves, leaves, grain, grain, block block salt, salt, and water are are and water Alfalfa hay made available available to the the animals animals ad libitum. It is made libitum. It important young young animals animals begin begin ingesting ingesting solid solid food important after birth Blunt, pers. pel's. comm.). soon after birth (F. M. Blunt, comm.). After After young animals animals have have accepted accepted the the p_ presence the y.oU.hg resence of the �handler, handler, fresh fresh forb forb leaves leaves or palatable palatable grass grass blades blades are are rolled rolled or folded folded and and placed placed between between the back back molars molars a few times times each each day day to stimulate stimulate chewing chewing and and ingestion Young, captive ingestion of solid food. Young, captive rwninants ruminants begin voluntarily voluntarily ingesting ingesting solid solid food at at 2-3 2-3 wks of age age and and will frequently frequently eat eat dirt. dirt. HEALTHCARE HEALTH CARE General General A newly eceived animal newly rreceived animal is first first inspected inspected for for general general health. health. Iodine Iodine is applied applied to the the naval naval area area and and blotted blotted with with cotton. cotton. The The umbilical umbilical cord is never never cut. It It should should dry up and and fall off within within 2 wks after after birth. If birth. If the the naval naval area area or lesions lesions on the the body are are infected, infected, they they are are cleaned cleaned with with hydrogen hydrogen peroxide, peroxide, swabbed swabbed with with a topical topical antibacterial antibacterial dressing, dressing, and and the the animals animals injected injected intramuscularly intramuscularly with with a broad· broadspectrum spectrum antibiotic antibiotic twice twice a day day for 55 days. days. If If signs signs of respiratory respiratory or other other ailments ailments are are evident, evident, animals animals are are also also treated treated with with a broad-spectrum broad-spectrum antibiotic. antibiotic. An antibiotic antibiotic is is never never used used for more more than than 5 consecutive consecutive days potential detrimental days because because of potential detrimental effects effects on developing rumen. In developing microbiota micro biota in the the rumen. In some cases cases the the young young animals animals are are too weak, weak, injured, injured, or sick sick to realistically realistically attempt attempt to sustain sustain them, them, even temporru·itemporarily. In these these cases cases humane humane disposal disposal of the the unhealthy unhealthy animal animal is the the only alternative. alternative. When possible, When possible, young young animals animals ,u-e are kept kept in an an enclosed enclosed native native pasture pasture with with shrubs, shrubs, trees, trees, and and an an artificial shelter. shelter. Animals Animals and and their their pens pens are are always always artificial kept kept clean clean and and dry. dry. Heat Heat lamps lamps are are utilized utilized in shelfe.rs shelters during during nights nights and and cool days days during during the the first first few weeks to prevent or unnecessary prevent hypothermia hypothermia unnecessary homeothermic homeothermic energy energy drains. drains. Facial Facial areas areas are are wiped clean clean with with a sponge sponge after after each each milk feeding feeding to reduce reduce the the attraction attraction of flies. flies. Anal Anal areas areas are are washed washed with with warm water water or lightly lightly rubbed rubbed with with a wet wet sponge sponge 1-2 1-2 warm times times each each day day to stimulate stimulate defecation defecation and and remove remove material. This This "force-defecation" "force·defecation" is especially especially fecal material. important telope during important for deer, elk, elk, and and an antelope during the the first first few weeks weeks (F_ (F. M. Blunt, Blunt, pers. pel's. comm.). Diarrhea Diarrhea A recurring recurring problem problem during during attempts attempts to rear rear wild ruminants ruminants in captivity captivity is gastrointestinal gastrointestinal dysittncdysfunction manifested manifested by diarrhea, diarrhea. At theonsetofdianbea, the onset of diarrhea, tion sick animals animals are are separated separated from from healthy healthy ones. ones. Diarrhetic animals animals and and their their isolation isolation pens pens are are Diarrhetic cleaned cleaned several several times times each each day. day. Often Often hair hair on the the lower lower abdomen, abdomen, hock, hock, and and anal anal areas areas is clipped clipped to facilitate facilitate animal animal cleansing. cleansing. If If flies are are a problem, problem, fly spray (Cutter Cutter Animal Health spray (Cutter KRS, Cutter Animal Health Laboratories; Pfizet Livestock Spray Laboratories; Pfizer Livestock Spray, , Pfizer Pfizer Agriculture Division) Division) is is used and and animals animals are are Agriculture thoroughly thoroughly inspected inspected at at regular regular intervals intervals for for deposits deposits eggs and and larvae. larvae. of fly eggs Treatment Treatment of diarrhea diarrhea initially initially consists consists of discondiscontinuing tinuing milk milk feedings feedings for 11 day. day. ff, If, after after this this period, period, diarrhea is still still prevalent prevalent regular regular feeding feeding schedules schedules diarrhea are are resumed resumed with with one of the the following following treatment treatment regimes: 1) 1) Chloramphenicol Chloramphenicol administered administered orally orally regimes: with with milk at at a dosagf! dosage level of250 of 250 1ng mg during during the the first first feeding and and 100 100 mg duxing during subsequent subsequent scheduled scheduled feeding feedings for for no longer longer than than 2-3 2-3 days; days; 2) 2) Kaopectate Kaopectate feedings with milk milk (Upjohn (Upjohn Laboratories) Laboratories) administered administered orally orally with at twice a day; at adosagelevelofl a dosage level of 1 tablespoon tablespoon (15ml) (15 ml) twice day; or 3) Calf Calf Bact,erial Bacterial Scour Scour Treatment, Treatment, Neomycin Neomycin Base Base (Franklin (Franklin Laboratories) Laboratories) administered administered orally orally with with milk teaspoon (5 ml) 3 times times a milk at at a dogage dosage level level of 1 teaspoon day day durin,g during the the first first day day and and 0.5 teaspoon teaspoon (2.5 ml) ml) 3 times times a day day for for the the next next 2-3 days. days. If If an an animal animal does notrecover the above treatments, another not recover with with one one of ofthe above treatments, another is tried. tried. AddiLtionally. Additionally, an an e1ectrolyte-glucose electrolyte-glucose solution solution (Lifeguard, used to replace (Lifeguard, Norden Norden Laboratories) Laboratories) is used replace half half the the milk milk formula formula during during treatment treatment eff01·ts. efforts. If animals animals improve, improve, amounts amounts of milk milk formula formula are are gradually with a decrease gradually increased increased concurrent concurrent with decrease in electrolyte-glucose electrolyte-glucose solution solution until until the the animal animal iiis being being fod rations. fed full-formula full-formula rations. Transpor1~ Transportaation tion The of young The transportation transportation young ruminants ruminants to their their final requires final destination destination requires special special consideration. consideration. Young Young animals animals should should be placed placed in in a covered covered and and well box, regardless regardless of length ventilated ventilated holding holding box, length of trip, trip, and For long trips (> 200 mi) and are are never never hog-tied. hog-tied. For long trips (>200 mi) air air transportation is the the least the young transportation least stressful stressful on the young animals. upsets the animals. To minimize minimize digestive digestive upsets the animal animal should normally be fed immediately should not not normally immediately prior prior to travel. weak or the the travel. However, However, if if the the animal animal appears appears weak trip reguiar feeding regimen trip is longe:r longer than than 1 day day a regular feeding regimen should be followed. should be folllowed. Disposal Disposal In most most inistances instances wild young young ruminants reared Tn ruminants rear ed in captivity be returned wild. Their captivity cannot cannot be returned to the the wild. Their docile nature acquired acquired during during the process nature the hand-rearing hand-rearing process predisposes them them to a variety domestic and and wild predisposes variety of domestic wild predators. Locations Locations for disposal disposal of these animals, in predators. these animals, order include the Wildlife order of priority, priority, include the Division Division of of Wildlife Research Research Center; Center; Wildlife Wildlife Disease Disease Center, Center, Colorado Colorado State State University; University; and and local local zoos. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEM EN'l'S Sincere appreciation appreciation is extended extended to Mr. Floyd Sincere Floyd Blunt, Fish Department, Blunt, Wyoming Wyoming Game Game and and Fish Department, for explanations of his and for his explanations his rearing rearing procedures procedures and liis assistance assistance when when problems problems have have arisen. arisen. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Anderson, K 1975. Evaluation Evaluation ofradio-telemetry. of radio-telemetry. Anderson, A. E. Colorado Div. Div. Wild!. Wildl. Game Game Res. Rep. July, July, (2):413Colorado 473. Blunt, F. M.,. M., H. A. Dawson. Dawson, and and E.T. E. T. Thorne, Thorne. 1977. 1977. B1unt, H. A. Birth wei11:hts weights and and gestation gestation in a captive captive Rocky Rocky Birth Mountain Mountain bighorn bighorn sheep. sheep. J. J. Mammal. Mammal. 58(1):106. 58(1):106. Buck.land., A.Ahler,R.L.Kirkpatrick, Buckland, D D... E., K, W. W.A. Abler,R. L. Kirkpatrick, andJ andJ. . Whelan. 1975. Improved Improved husbandry husbandry system system for B. Whelan. rearing rearing fawns fawns in captivity. captivity. J. J. Wild\. Wildl. Manaf;{e. Manage. 39(1):211-214. 39(1):211-214. Geist, Geist, V. 1971. 1971. Mountain Mountain sheep, sheep, a study study in beho.viur behavior and evolutfon. evolution. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago and and and Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago London. 383 p. London. Halford, Alldredge. 1978. A method Halford, D. K., and and. A. W. Alldredge. method for artificiiaJly Amer. artificially raising raising mule mule deer deer fawns. fawns. Amer. Midi. MidI. Nat. Nat. 100(2):493-498. 100(2):493-498. �7 Haugen, W. Speake. Haugen, A A. 0., and and D. D. W. Speake. 1958. Determining Determining the the age age of young young fawn fawn white-tailed white-tailed deer. J. J. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 22(3):319-321. Hightower, andraising of desert Hightower, V. 1973. H Handraising desert bighorn bighorn lambs. lambs. Desert Desert Bighorn Bighorn Counc. Counc. Txans. Trans. 164-166. Hobbs, Hobbs, N. T T.,.. and and D. L. Baker. Baker. 1979. 1979. Rearing Rearing and and training training elk calves calves for use use in food habits habits studies. studies. J. J. Wildl. Wild!. Manage, Manage. 43(2):568-570. Jackson, Jackson, R. M., M. White, White, and and F. F. Knowlton. Knowlton. 1972. Activity Activity patterns patterns of young young white-tailed white-tailed de-er deer fawns fawns in South South Texas. Texas. Ecol. Eco!. 53(2):262-270. Murphy, Murphy, D. A. 1960. Rearing Rearing and and breeding breeding whitewhitetailed fawns in tailed deer deer fawns in captivity. captivity. J. J. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 24(4):439-441. Reichert, D. Reichert, D. W. W. 1972. Rearing Rearing and and training training deer deer for food habits U.S. For. habits studies. studies. U.S. For. Serv. Servo Rocky Rocky Mtn. Mtn. For. For. Range Range Exp. Exp. Stn. Stn. Res. Note Note RM-208. 7 p. Robinette, Robinette, W. L., C.H. C. H. Baer, Baer, R. E. Pillmore, Pill more, and and C. E. E. Knittle. Knittle. 1973. Effects Effects of nutritional nutritional change change on captive captive m\lle mule deer. deer. J. J. Wildl. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 37(3):312-326. Schwartz. Schwartz, C. C., J. G. Nagy, Nagy, and and S. M. Kerr. Kerr. 1976. Rearing Rearing and and training training pronghorns. pronghorns for ecological ecological studies. studies. J. J. Wildt. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 40(3):464-468. Silver, Silver, H. 1961. Deer Deer milk milk compared compared with with substit\lte substitute milk milk for fawns. fawns. J. J. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 25(1):66-70. Trainer, Trainer, D. 0. O. 1962. The The rearing rearing of white-tailed white-tailed deer deer fawns fawns in captivity, captivity. J. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 26(3):340-341. Trindle, Trindle, B. D., L. L. D. D. Lewis, Lewis, andL. and L. H. Lauerman. Lauerman. 1978. Evaluation Evaluation of stress stress and and its its effects effects on the the immune immune system system ofhand-rearedmuledeerfawns(Odocoileus of hand-reared mule deer fawns (Odocoileus hemionus). hemionus). J. J. Wildl. Wild!. Dis. 14(4):523-537. Truett, Truett, J. J. C, C. 1977.Birth 1977. Birth and and first-day first-day behavior behavior of wild mule mule deer deer fawns. fawns. J. J. Wildl. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 41(1):150-151. White, .. F.F. White, M M., F. F. Knowlton, Knowlton, and and W. C. Glazener.1972. Glazener. 1972. Effects Effects of dam-newborn dam-newborn fawn fawn behavior behavior on capture capture and and mortality. mortality. J. J. W-ildl. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 36(4):897-906. Youngson, Youngson, R. W. 1970. 1970. Rearing Rearing red deer deer calves calves in captivity. captivity. JJ.. Wild]. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 34(2):467-470. Paul Paul H. Neil, Neil, Wildlife Wildlife Technician Technician Thomas Thomas N. Woodard, Woodard, Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher Dan Dan L. Baker, Baker, Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher July July u-rn-.l 1979 �- -_.../- -- ---- . :.~ - '. ./ PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBL l~HED BY THE DEPARTMENT 0 OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF WilDLIFE DIVISION WILDLIF A-. .Jf}. - '-. I~ <: .' :A- I. 't." Information Leaflet Leaflet Game Information Number 107 107 Number WINTER FOODS FOODS OF MULE MULE DEER DEER WINTER IN PICEANCE PICEANCE BASIN IN BASIN Food choices choices of tame tame mule mule deer deer (Odocoileus Food hemiO'lws) were were observed he,ll'ionw;) observed on pinyon-juniper pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus edulis-Juniperus osteosperma) winter winter (Pinus osteosperma) range in Piceance Piceance Basin Basin from from October-April, October-April, range and 19 1979-80. Forage selections selections of 8 tame 1978-79 and 9-80. Forage tame deer (6 in April recorded during during 5 April 1980) were were recorded deer foraging periods periods in 1978-79 and and 6 in 1979-80. foraging Foraging trials were conducted conducted in 2 sections sections of Foraging trials were the basin basin each sampling period period to include include varyvarythe each sampling ing vegetation compositions. One section section was was a ing vegetation compositions. pinyon-juniper-mixed shrub type in the the pinyon-juniper-mixed shrub type northeastern portion portion of the the basin and the other basin and the other northeastern pinyon-juniper-sagebrush (Artemisia tridentaa pinyon-juniper-sagebrush (Artemisia tridentatype in the the southwestern southwestern portion. Methods ta) type portion. Methods and results the species species composition composition and and nutrinutriand results of the tional quality quality aspects aspects of deer deer winter diets were were tional winter diets presented else elsewhere (Bartmann 1983). This This rerepresented here (Bartmann port augments data on major major forage forage species species disdisport augments data cussed in that that publication publication with with a graphic graphic presenpresencussed tation forage use winter (Fig. 1). deer over winter tation of forage use by deer addition, all plant plant species eaten by tame tame deer deer In addition, species eaten are listed for reference reference use in habitat habitat improveare listed improvement or reclamation reclamation projects projects in Piceance Piceance Basin Basin ment or similar similar areas. areas. or diets for each each month month (2 areas areas x 2 years) except years) except diets January which because there foragJanuary which had had 2 because there were were foraging for that month only (1980). that month only in 1 year year {1980). ing trials trials for Composite diets diets were then averaged averaged by month month to Composite were then derive Table 1. derive the the values values in Table During the the 2-year 2-year study, study, tame tame deer deer were During were observed for 685 hours hours and and took bites took over 641,000 bites served forage. They They ate ate at least 139 plant species inat least plant species of forage. cluding 28 trees trees and and shrubs, shrubs, 94 forbs forbs and and lower lower cluding plant forms, forms, and and 17 grasses and sedges sedges (Table (Table 1). plant grasses and Sometimes, species species within within the the same same genus genus could could Sometimes, not be consistently consistently identified identified throughout throughout the the not winter. In In these these cases, cases, the the genus genus name name is given given winter. and species species known known to have have been been eaten eaten are are shown shown and Plant nomenclature follows the the nomenclature follows in parentheses. parentheses. Plant Plant Information Network the USDI, USDI, BiologBiologPlant Information Network of the ical Services Services Program. Program. ical 0 60 0 Species composition, composition, on a dry-weight dry-weight basis, basis, of Species individual deer deer diets diets were combined and and averaverindividual were combined aged to derive a composite diet for each month aged derive composite diet for each month and year. year. Thus, Thus, there there were were 4 composite by area area and composite Results of the habits work work (Bartmann (Bartmann Results the food habits show deer deer ate ate a variety during 1983) show variety of species species during winter periods. periods. The The total number of species species all winter total number eaten each each month month ranged from 56 in November November eaten ranged from March. However, 1/5 to 1/3 1/3 of However, only 1/5 to 81 in March. these species species averaged averaged 1 1% more of monthly monthly % or more these diets. Changes in use many species species generally generally use of many diets. Changes reflected changing availability due to phenology reflected changing availability due phenology or snow conditions. Shrub Shrub and and tree tree species species were snow conditions. were important during during early early and mid-winter because because important and mid-winter they were were available available above above the the snow snow and and were were they 100 100 90 I- 80 I80 W w c0 7070 LL ~ lIso zZ 50 TREES AND AND SHRUBS SHRUBS TREES w w () 40 0 a: cc w a. ii. 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 OCT OCT NOV NOV DEC DEC JAN JAN FEB FEB MAR MAR APR APR MONTH MONTH Figure 1. 1. Relative Relative importance importance of major forFigure October-April in diets of age classes from October-April tame mule deer on pinyon-juniper pinyon-juniper in Piceance Basin, 1978-79 1978-79 and 1979-80 1979-80 winters ceance winters combined. �nutritionally equal or superior superior to grasses grasses and nutritionally forbs Importance grasses and forbs forhs (Fig. 1). Imp rtance of gras es and peaked spring when peaked in spring when new growth growth began. This growth was nutritionally nutritionally superior superior to browse new growth browse both crude crude protein in both protein and digestibility. digestibility. Thus, forage diversity diversity is important important to wintering wintering mule forage deer Piceance Basin revegetation and deer in Piceance Basin and revegetation habitat improvement improvement efforts should provide habitat efforts should provide for it. Table 1. 1. Monthly Monthly percent percent composition composition of tame tame Table mule deer deer diets pinyon-juniper range range in mule diets on pinyon-juniper Piceance Basin Basin during during October-April October-April 1978-79 1978-79 Piceance and 1979-80. and 1979-80, Species Species· 00 N N Month F M M A J F A TREES AND SHRUBS SHRUBS TREES Amelanchier Amelanchier utahensis utahensis Artemisia Artemisia tridentata tridentata triplex canescens canescens A Atriplex Atriplex confertifolia confertifolia Atriplex Brickellia scabra Brickellia scabra 21 13 21 ta ta 3 1 Ceratoides lanata lanata Ceratoides t Cercocarpus martinii martinii t Cercocarpus Cercocarpus montanus Cercocarpus montanus 22 29 Chrysothamnus depressus depressus Chrysothamnus Chrysothamnus nauseosus nauseosus Chrysothamnus t t Chrysothamnus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus viscidffforus Ephedra Ephedra viridis Gutierrezia sarothrae sarothrae Gutierrezia Juniperus osteosperma osteosperma Juniperus Juniperus scopulorum scopulorum Juniperus Leptodactylon pungens Leptodactylon pungens Mahonia repens Mahonia repens Pachystima myrsinites myrsinites Pachystima Pinus edulis edulis Pinus Purshia tridentata tridentata Purshia Quercus gambelii gambelii Quercus Rhus trilobata Rhus trilobata Ribes cereum Ribes cereum Rosa woodsii Rosa woodsii Sarcobatus vermicufatus vermiculatus Sarcobatus Symphoricarpos Symphoricarpos oreophilus oreophi/us Tetradymia canescens canescens Tetradymia glauca Yucca glauca 9 1 5 4 t 1 t t 7 10 6 4 t 1 t 4 2 2 2 8 3 7 t t 1 1 2 t 2 9 t t t t 2 t 1 t t t t t 11 24 13 1 11 34 10 7 2 9 5 1 5 1 t t 1 t 1 t t t t 1 23 27 23 1 t t t t t t 7 6 2 t t t t 4 t t 1 t t t 1 t 1 1 4 t ----------------------- --- ------ - 1 t Table 1. (continued) (continued) Table 1. Species Species 0 N N 0 Month J F M A A FORBS AND LOWER LOWER PLANT PLANT FORMS FORMS FORBS Achillea lanulosa Achiflea lanu/osa Agoseris aurantiaca Agoseris aurantiaca Allium acuminatum Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Androsaoe septentrionalis ANTENNARIA ANTENNARIA parvifolia) (A. parvifofia) rosea) (A. rosea) ARABIS ARABIS Arenaria Arenaria eastwoodiae eastwoodiae Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia frigida Artemisia ludoviciana ludoviciana Artemisia Astragalus chamaeleuce Astragatus chamaeleuce Astragalus convallarius Astragalus convallarius Astragalus Astragalus purshii purshii Astragalus spatulatus spatulatus Astragafus Astragalus tenellus Astragalus tene/lus ASTRAGALUS ASTRAGALUS A triplex rosea rosea Atriplex Balsamorhiza Balsamorhiza sagittata sag;ttata Brickellia grandiflora grandiflora Brickellia Calochortus nuttalfii nuttallii Calochortus t t t t 1 t t t t t t t 1 4 t t t t t t tt t t t t t 2 1 t t t t t t t t t t t t t tt t t t t t t t t t t t Chenopodium fremontii fremontii Chenopodium CHENOPODIUM CHENOPODIUM CIRCIUM CIRC/UM undulatum) (C. undufatum) Collinsia parviflora parviflora Collinsia Comandra umbellata umbellata Comandra t Delphinium nutta/fianum nuttallianum Delphinium Descurainia richarsonii richarsonii Descurainia Erigeron eatonii eatonii Erigeron Erigeron speciosus Erigeron speciosus Erigeron subtrinervis Erigeron subtrinervis t t t CASTILLEJA CASTILLEJA chromosa) (C. chromosa} (G. lineariaefolia) lineariaefolia) (C. Centraria nivalis nivalis Centraria Chaenactis douglasii douglasii Chaenactis Crepis acuminata acuminata Crepis Cryptantha sericea Cryptantha sericea CYMOPTERUS CYMOPTERUS (C. acaulis) acaulis) (C, fendleri) (C. fendleri) t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t 4 t t t t t t t 1 1 t 3 t t t t t t t t t t t t ----------------- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - �Table I. 1. (continued) 1. (continued) Table 1. Species Species 0 0 N Eriogonum alatum Erlogonum alatum Eriogonum cernuum cernuum Eriogonum Eriogonum Eriogonum lonchophyl/um lonchophy/lum Eriogonum ova/ifolium ovalifolium Eriogonum Eriogonum umbellatum umbel/atum Eriogonum t t t Erysimum asperum Erysimum asperum Euphorbia fendleri Euphorbia fendleri Euphorbia robusta Euphorbia robusta Galium coloradoensis coloradoensis Ga/ium Geranium fremontii fremontii Geranium Haplopappus Haplopappus acaulis acaulis Haplopappus Haplopappus nuttallii nuttallii Hedysarum boreale Hedysarum borea/e Helianthel/a uniflora uniflora Helianthe/la Heliomeris muJtiflora multiflora Heliomeris Heterotheca villosa Heterotheca Heuchera parvifolia parvifolia Heuchera Hymenopappus filifolius Hymenopappus filifolius Hymenoxys acaulis acaulis Hymenoxys Ipomopsis aggregata aggregata lpomopsis Kochia scoparia scoparia Koch/a Kuhnia rosmarinifolfa rosmarinifolia Kuhnia Lappula redowskii redowskii Lappula Lepidium montanum montanum Lepidium Leucelene ericoides ericoides Leucelene Linum lewisii Unum lewisii Lithospermum ruderale ruder ale Lithospermum LlTHOSPERMUM LITHOSPERMUM Lomatium dissectum Lomatium dissectum Lomatium grayi grayi LomaUum Lomatium triternatum Lomatium triternatum Lupinus argenteus argenteus Lupinus Lupinus caudatus Lupinus caudatus Machaeranthera Machaeranthera leucanthemifolia /eucanthemifolia Mertensia lanceolata lanceolata Mertensia 2 Month Month A J F M A t t t 1 8 t t 1 t t t 8 t t 1 1 t t t t t t t t t t t 1 t t 1 t 3 t 4 t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t 3 6 t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t 1 1 1 t t t t t t Moss Moss Penstemon caespitosus caespitosus Penstemon Penstemon fremontii Penstemon fremontii Penstemon osterhout17 osterhoutii Penstemon Penstemon strictus Penstemon strictus t 1 1 t t t t Penstemon watsonii watsonii Penstemon Phlox hoodii Phlox hoodii Phlox Phlox longifolia /ongifolia Phlox Phlox multiflora multiflora Physaria acutifolia Physaria acutifo/ia t 1 t t t t tt t t t t t 11 t 2 t t t t t 2 t t 4 t t t t 1 2 t 2 t t t t Salsola iberica iberica Sa/so/a Senecio multilobatus multilobatus Senecio Senecio mutabilis Senecio mutabilis Senecio werneriaefolius werneriaefolius Senecio Sisymbrium altissimum altissimum Sisymbrium Sphaeralcea coccinea coccinea Sphaera/cea Streptanthus cordatus cordatus Streptanthus Taraxicum officinale officinale Taraxicum Tragopogon dubius dubius Tragopogon Trifolium gymnocarpon gymnocarpon Trifolium 0 0 N t t t t Month Month J F M A A t 1 t t t t t t t t 2 t 1 t t t t t t Verbascum thapsis thapsis Verbascum nuttal/ii Viola nuttallii Zygadenus venosus Zygadenus venosus t t 1 GRASSES AND SEDGES SEDGES GRASSES t 2 Species Species t t t -------------------- - ---- - --- --- AGROPYRON AGROPYRON (A. cristatum) cristatum) smithii) (A. smithiij (A. spicatum) {A. spicatum) Aristida fendleriana Aristida fendleriana t t t t t t t t Elymus cinereus cinereus Elymus Hilaria jamesii jamesii Koeleria cristata cristata Koe/eria Oryzopsis Oryzopsis hymenoides hymenoides t t POA fendleriana) (P. fendleriana) (P. pratensis) pratensis) (P. sandbergiQ sandbergii) (P. Sitanion hystrix hystrix Sitanion Stipa comata comata Stipa Bouteloua gracilis gracilis Bouteloua Bromus tectorum tectorum Bromus CAREX CAREX geophila) (C. geophila) (C. pityophila) pityophila) = < < 1% a t = 3 1 t{ t t t 1 t t 1 t 3 1 t t 4 t 3 t t t t t t t 11 t t 3 3 2 t t 2 1 43 2 43 t t t t 2 t 2 1 t t tt 1 1 t t �LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Bartmann, Bartmann, R.M. 1983. 1983. Composition Composition and quality quality of mule mule deer deer diets diets on pinyon-juniper pinyon-juniper winter winter range, range, Colorado. Colorado. J. Range Range Manage. Manage. 36:in press. press. Richard Richard M. M. Bartmann Bartmann Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher March March 1983 �PUBLISHED BY THE COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF WILDLIFE Game Information Leaflet Number 108 SHRUB THICKET ESTABLISHMENT IN COLORADO'S HIGH PLAINS 1 Shrub thickets are one of the most beneficial habitat supplements that can be provided to plains upland game in the High Plains of eastern Colorado. Ringnecked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), scaled quail (Callipepla squamata), desert cottontails (Sylvilagus audubonii), mourning doves (Zenaida macroura), deer (Odocoileus spp.), and many songbird species extensively use shrub thickets. These wildlife species need protective cover close to the ground which shrubs provide in contrast to self-pruning large trees. There is less avian predation of upland game and their nests where shrubs, rather than tall trees, are present (Snyder 1982a). Shrub thickets are desirable because: (1) they are more economical to establish than tree shelterbelts, (2) they require less land and compete less with adjacent crops for moisture than trees, and (3) they can be established more rapidly than trees. A closed canopy shrub thicket can be achieved within a few years, whereas many years are usually required to establish a large, wide-row windbreak. Shrub thickets are also visually aesthetic and some species provide supplemental food for wildlife. Woody plantings are not well adapted to the semiarid plains of eastern Colorado necessitating conscientious weed control for a few years until they become established. Once they have survived the first critical years, many shrub species perpetuate themselves by root sprouts and survive for many decades with little additional maintenance. Since tillage and hand-hoeing maintenance of plantings is time consuming and easily neglected, this leaflet provides alternatives to reduce maintenance demands. However, if woody plantings are to benefit wildlife, their design, location, species selection, and other factors must be considered. This leaflet is intended for use by farmers, landowners, conservation agency technicians, and others interested in direct field application. Contribution from Federal Aid Project W-37-R. SIZE, SHAPE, AND PLACEMENT OF SHRUB THICKETS It is essential that shrub thickets, like shelterbelts, be designed and positioned to provide relatively snow-free protective winter cover for wildlife. They, like shelterbelts, should be short and wide rather than long and narrow. Thickets should be placed south and east of natural snow barriers, such as tree rows, weedy fences, draw banks, dams, etc. Or, snow fences, tree rows, etc. can be positioned northwest of thickets to reduce snow drift impact. Snow fences can be positioned adjacent to the thicket for the 1st 1-3 years after planting to drift snow onto the shrubs to stimulate increased growth from melting snow (Fig. 1). Once shrubs are established, the fence should be moved 100 f t (30 m) or so away to prevent snow from drifting into the thicket increasing its value to wintering wildlife. Figure 1. The snow fence will deposit snow on this plastic-organic mulch planting for 1-3 years and will be moved to hold snow out of the developing thicket when it becomes of value to wildlife. �Thickets should be placed adjacent to feeding sites and escape cover (Fig. 2). Most wildlife, especially quail and cottontails, cannot survive if feeding areas are not close to cover. Pheasants usually roost in weed patches or stubble fields, so the thicket or shelterbelt is of primary value after a blizzard is over, not while it is in progress (Warner and David 1982). Figure 2. A dense plum thicket adjacent to wheat stubble provides an excellent combination for pheasants and cottontails. Shrub thickets can vary in size from a few shrubs to large plantings, 100 f t (30 m) or more per side, depending on location and need. However, a small thicket, positioned to escape snow drifts is often equal in wildlife value to a larger, less well protected planting, and is easier to establish. One option is to use 1 larger woody planting per farm unit, primarily for use by wildlife in winter, and supplement it with several small clump plantings at tailwater pits, odd corners, and other sites distributed over the farm. ESTABLISHMENT OF SHRUB THICKETS One advantage of using shrubs is that they can be planted relatively close together to form a closedcanopy thicket within a few years. Shrubs can be planted 3-4 f t (0.9-1.2 m) apart in sub-irrigated sites where moisture is not deficient. Shrubs should be spaced at 6-8 f t (1.8-2.4 m) intervals in dryland sites. A drip irrigation watering system should be used, if possible, during the first few establishment years. Mulch treatments are recommended for use on small thickets, 15-40 f t (4.6-12.2 m) per side assuming low or no cost mulches are available. Shrubs should be planted in shallow furrows with 4-mil black plastic sheeting spread over the between-row ridges to eliminate weeds and to direct precipitation toward the shrubs. The plastic should be overlaid with 2-4 in. (5.1-10.2 cm) of wood chips, corn cobs, or other mulch to protect the plastic and to prevent excessive heating of the ground. Wood chips are sometimes available from local tree trimmers or electric power companies. Straw is not a preferred mulch because it decomposes rapidly, is easily blown away, and attracts small rodents. A 1-2 in. (2.5-5.1 cm) layer of gravel can also be used as a mulch over plastic. Mulching greatly increases shrub survival and growth in dryland sites while eliminating need for repetitious weed control (Fig. 3) (Snyder 19826). R. Moss (pers. commun.) found that shrubs achieved greater growth using this approach during years of average or better precipitation, than drip irrigation-tillage treatments in northeastern Colorado. Figure 3. This developing plum thicket in its 3rd growing season illustrates the rapid growth attained using the plastic-organic mulch technique. Organic mulch without the black plastic sheeting can be used, but is not recommended primarily because the mulch must be retained at a 6-10 in. (15.2-25.4 cm) thickness to effectively suppress annual weeds. This thick layer absorbs light rains reducing precipitation availability to the shrubs and increases the need for supplemental watering with drip irrigation. Organic mulch, when in direct contact with the soil, decomposes more readily than when plastic sheeting is used. Small thickets can also be maintained weed free by using a garden-type rototiller and hand hoe with 2-4 replications per growing season. Using these techniques, shrub survival and growth will be lower than with the mulch technique. Thickets or block plantings, too large for practical treatment with mulches, can be established using tillage and pre-emergent herbicides in combination for weed control. Shrubs should be spaced 4-6 f t (1.2-1.8 m) apart within rows with the distance between rows being determined by the size of the tillage equipment (preferably 12 f t [3.7 m] or less). Pre-emergent herbicides, trifluralin (Treflan) and EPTC (Eptam), can be applied in combination at respective rates of 0.5 and 2 lbs active ingredient per acre (0.6 and 2.3 kg/ha). The spray mixture should be applied and immediately incorporated into the top layer of soil over the entire area prior to shrub planting. This herbicide mixture is persistent for only a few weeks but can be used to reduce weed maintenance during the 1st year of shrub establishment. It can also be used between rows to partially reduce tillage maintenance in subsequent years. �A within-row band application of a persistent herbicide is recommended to replace hand hoeing where tillage implements cannot control weeds. Either of 2 herbicides, simazine (Princep 80W) or dichlobenil (Casoron), is suggested. Simazine should be applied at 2-3 lbs total product per acre (2.3-3.4 kg/ha) in fall or late winter. It is highly persistent and water insoluble; consequently annual applications are not recommended. If needed, a 2nd application at one-half the initial rate can be applied 2 years after the 1st treatment. Casoron should be applied in late winter at the rate of 150 lbs total product per acre (170 kg/ha) and at 100 lbs/acre (113.4 kg/ha) in successive years as needed using 4% granular herbicide. Casoron and simazine should not be soil incorporated and they should not be covered by between-row tillage. Neither herbicide is recommended for use on light, sandy soils (Heikes 1982). Calibration, to apply the correct amount, is a major concern especially when applying herbicides to small tracts or within-row bands. Nozzle emitter size, sprayer pressure, spray band width, and forward speed must be considered when applying herbicides as liquids. Trial applications using only water are needed to determine proper mixtures. Calibration of granular herbicides is less demanding, but is equally important. Once the proper calibration has been achieved, all variables should be recorded and filed so that this time-consuming endeavor can be eliminated prior to subsequent applications. Application equipment must, at times, be improvised to meet a particular need (e.g., when applying herbicides to within-row bands). The complexity of calibration and cost of a container of herbicide (when only a small amount is needed) may make use of herbicides impractical unless several shrub plantings are being established. None of the herbicides or mulch techniques mentioned is effective against deep-rooted, persistent, noxious perennials such as bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) or Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense). Sites containing such plants should be avoided. Sites broken from perennial vegetation should be deep-plowed and summer fallowed 1 year in advance of planting. Plastic-mesh tree protectors placed around individual shrubs (Fig. 4) reduce damage to young seedlings Figure 4. Plastic tree protectors reduce damage to young seedlings. by rodents, rabbits, hail, and insects (R. Moss, pers. commun.). Rodents and rabbits also can be excluded using poultry netting (18 in. high) placed around individual shrubs, or around the entire thicket, assuming it is small. These methods are preferred to annual applications of repellents. WATER AND FERTILIZER Shrub thickets placed adjacent to tailwater pits, below farm ponds, near windmills, or other water sources can be irrigated by one of several methods (e.g., drip [trickle] irrigation [Fig. 5], centrifugal pump and sprinkler, or flood irrigation). Shrubs can also be planted in low areas, seepage sites, or run-off sites to use supplemental moisture. Where adequate water is available, application of slow-release nitrogen fertilizer can be used. Nitrogen fertilizer is not recommended for dryland sites. Figure 5. Drip or trickle irrigation increases shrub sur vival and growth. SPECIES SELECTION Optimum shrub growth form for plains upland game is provided by shrubs that develop into a closed canopy thicket, 6-10 f t (1.8-3.0 m) high, with an understory easily penetrated by wildlife. The species should be readily transplanted, hardy and long-lived, drought, cold, and alkaline tolerant, and not readily browsed by wildlife or damaged by insects or disease. It should root sprout to perpetuate itself. No single shrub species meets all these criteria. American plum (Prunus americana) is recommended as a priority species for thicket use in eastern Colorado. It has an excellent height and growth form and extensively root sprouts to perpetuate itself and to increase the size of the thicket (Morton 1971). It is adapted to most soils and sites in farmland areas of eastern Colorado. Its primary weakness is susceptibility to browsing by rabbits. Tree protectors (Fig. 4) or poultry netting protectors should be used in problem areas. Common chokecherry (P. virginiana) has similar excellent growth form and root sprouting characteristics, but may not be quite as drought tolerant as plum. Numerous other shrub species can be used in �thicket plantings but few have the pronounced root sprouting characteristics of plum or chokecherry. Squawbush (fragrant) sumac (Rhus aromatica) is extremely drought hardy and long-lived but usually attains a height of only 3-5 f t (0.9-1.2 m). It is better suited for quail and cottontails than for pheasants and deer. Other, taller hardy species include common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) and tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica). French tamarisk (Tamarix gallica) or New Mexico elderberry (Sambucus neo-mexicana) can be used in sandy soils of eastern Colorado (Kinghorn and Yeager 1969). Silver and russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea and S. canadensis) and many-flowered and Peking cotoneaster (Cotoneaster multifolia callocarpa and C. acutifolia) are suggested for sites receiving supplemental water (e.g., subirrigated sites). Native sandbar willow (Salix interior) can be used in wet sites where cuttings can be placed into the ground in early spring to take root. The Colorado State Forest Service Nursery usually carries several of the above species including plum, sumac, lilac, and Peking cotoneaster. They also carry species not normally recommended for wildlife plantings including Hansen rose (Rosa sp.), sand (Bessey) cherry (Prunus besseyi), and caragana (Siberian peashrub) (Caragana aborescens). Orders may be placed for shrubs at local Colorado State University Extension Service offices or U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service offices. Some species not available in Colorado, may be obtained from out-of-state nurseries whereas others such as French tamarisk and sandbar willow can be obtained from cuttings, dug and transplanted, stock, or started from seed. Walkingstick cholla (Opuntia imbricata) can be transplanted into small clumps as a shrub substitute in shortgrass scaled quail range in southeastern Colorado where many shrubs are not adapted (Hoffman, 1969). Fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canascens), rabbitbrush (Chyrsothamnus spp.), and other native shrubs (transplanted or started from seed) may be used if supplemental water is provided during the 1st year of establishment. Small trees such as Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), mulberry (Morus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) can be used in thicket type plantings. Russian olive is relatively short-lived and junipers should not be planted in sites where fire risk is high. Topping (coppicing) or half-cutting (in spring after leafing) is recommended for trees to retain a relatively low growth form. These techniques, if repeated every few years, can retain Chinese and Siberian elm (Ulmus parvifolia and U. pumila) in an excellent shrubby growth form of high value for wildlife. Persons interested in establishing shrub thickets may contact Division of Wildlife personnel for assistance in locating funding sources and in design, placement, and species selection. Partial funding for wildlife habitat developments, including drip irrigation systems, can at times be obtained through the Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) administered by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS), or through the Great Plains program administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (SCS). Personnel of the latter agency can provide expertise for installation of drip irrigation systems. A leaflet available at county extension service offices (Walker and Smith 1979) should be obtained and reviewed when contemplating use of drip irrigation. LITERATURE CITED Heikes, R.E. 1982. Colorado weed control handbook. Colo. State Univ. Ext. Serv., Fort Collins, (revised annually.) Hoffman, D.M. 1969. Survival of transplanted cholla cactus. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Infor. Leafl. 66. 3pp. Kinghorn, G., and L.E. Yeager. 1969. Wildlife cover plants recommended for the eastern Colorado Plains. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Final Rep. Fed. Aid Proj. W-79-R. 122pp. Morton, W.B. 1971. Evaluation of habitat improvement programs for pheasants in eastern Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ. Fort Collins. 122pp. Snyder, W.D. 1982a. Evaluation of nesting cover preferences of pheasants in relation to wheat farming methods. Colo. Div. Wildl., Interim Final Rep. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-35. Pp. 1-57. 1982b. Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in clump plantings. Colo. Div. Wildl. Spec. Rep. 53. 17pp. Walker, W.R., and S.W. Smith. 1979. Trickle irrigation for orchard crops. Colo. State Univ. Ext. Serv., Serv. Action Rep. 4.703. 2 pp. Warner, R.E., and L.M. David. 1982. Woody habitat and severe winter mortality of ring-necked pheasants in central Illinois. J. Wildl. Manage. 46:923-932. Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher March 1983 �- -- PUBL JSHED BY THE PUBLISHED THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT O NATURAL DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION OF WilDLIFE DIVI ION OF WILDLIFE Jfif , .' . !\~ 'i., •... c:: - Ii[ ~ Number 109 Game Information Information Leaflet APPRAISAL QUADRAT CENSUS CENSUS FOR MULE MULE DEER APPRAISAL OF A QUADRAT DEER 1 IN PINYON-JUNIPER VEG VEGET IN PINYON-JUNIPER ET ATIONI ATION Quadrat units have been used aerial Quadrat sample sample units have been used in aerial census of of caribou caribou (Rangifer (Rangifer tarandus) tarandus) (Siniff (Siniff and and census Skoog 1964), 1964), moose (Evans et et al. Skoog moose (Alces alces) (Evans 1966, Bergerud Bergerud and and Manuel Manuel 1969), 1969), white-tailed 1966, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) virginianus) (Mangold 1966), mule mule deer (Mangold 1966), deer (0. (0. hemionus) 1969, Kufeld Kufeld et et al. 1980), 1980), deer hemionus) (Gill 1969, and prong~orn prong?orn (An,tilocapra americana) (Pojar et et and (An_tilocapra americana) (Pojar al. 1 1~82) vanety of of habitats. habitats. Diversity ~82) 10 m ~~. _vanety Diversity in countlOg condiaoos conditIOns has prompled prompted differences differences in counbng quadrat size ranging from 0.648 0.648 km22 for for mule quadrat ranging from mule rugged pinyonjuniper (Pinus edulisedulisdee: in rugged dee: pinyon-juniper (Pinus junzperus habitat in Colorado Colorado (Kufeld (Kufeld juniperus osteosperma) osteospmna) habitat 1980) to 10.36 km22 for for caribou caribou in more et al. 1980) to 10.36 more open vegetation in Alaska (Sin.iff (Siniff and open vegetation i~ .Ala~ka and Skoog Skoog 1964). Further Further vanatIOn of 1964). variation 10 in techmque technique was use use of fixed-wing aircraft to count count caribou caribou and and moose fixed-v. ing aircraft moose and helicopter helicopters to deer and pronghorn. and to count count deer and pronghorn. ~n Colorado, precision of mule mule deer I_n Colorado precision of deer population population estimates from from quadrat censuses has has varied varied from estimates quadrat censuses from ± 17 to 23% 23% of'X at the 90% confidence ofx at the 90% confidence level on pinyon-juniper range (Kufeld et al. 1980) 1980) and pinyon-juniper range (Kufeld et and from ±22 of'X at the confidence levfrom ± 22 to 35% 35% ofx the 90% 90% confidence sage~r~sh range el on sage~r~sh range (R. B. Gill, unpubl. unpubl. data). data). These prec1s1on preCisIOn levels resulted resulted from from first-time first-time exThese periences quadrat sar_npli~g sat.D.pli~gand with_ quadrat and presumably presumably perience with. with improved sampling all .could could be lOcreased mcreased with improved sampling deSigns acquired knowledge. condesigns based based on acquired knowledge. In In constrast, establishing establishing accuracy of census census estimates estimates strast, accuracy of with an any method essentially impossible impossible with with method is essentially large free-ranging free-ranging populations. Procedures must large populations. Procedures must therefore be be devised devised to therefore to help help infer infer reasonableness reasonableness of estimates. estim~tes. This This report report describes describes the approach of the approach used With mule mule deer in Piceance Piceance deer Basin used with ~orthwestern 4?0Iorado, ~olorado, which involved compar~ ?orthwestem which involved compar~ 109 census population figures mg census estimates estimates to population figures gengenerated from from other data. erated other data. 1Contributirmfrom Federal IContributionfrom and W-126-R. Federal Aid Projects Projed.J W-38-R rmd METHODS METHODS Testing Preliminary Field Testing Quadrat census procedures were Quadrat census procedures were adapted adapted from from those (1969) who who counted counted mule on of Gill (1969) mule deer deer on those of 93 2.59-km sagebrush winter 2.59-km2 2 quadrats quadrats on on a sagebrush winter range in Middle Middle Park, range Park, Colorado. Colorado. However, However, 2 9uestions had had to be be addressed addressed prior establishprior to to establish9uestions 109 a quadrat mg quadrat census census in Piceance P:iceance Basin; Basin; could could deer be readily seen ~nder pinyonjuniper deer be readily seen 1:1nder pinyon-juniper canopy canopy and what what was a practiCal quadrat size? Imuitively, Intuitively, and pract1cal quadrat 2.59-km22 quadrat of a 2.59-km quadrat was too too large large because because of overs tory vegetation rough terrain. overstory vegetation and and rough terrain. To address address the question, 10 to 15 deer deer To the first first question, IO to were placed deer-proof pastures pastures of of were placed in each each of of 3 deer-proof 49 range. An An ob49 to 6? 6~ ha ha on. on_ pinyon-juniper pinyon:juniper range. serv:: With but ununwith prevIOUS previous census census experience, experience but server famihar the pastures and unaware familiar with with the pastures and unawar~ of of how how many deer deer in each, each, counted counted and of many and missed missed only only I1 of 37 deer deer present. present. To partially partially resolve second question, To resolve the the second question , 2 2 and square quadrat square quadrat sizes were were tested: tested: 0.162-km 0 . l 62-km2 and 0.648-km of each ar0.648-km2.2 . Twelve Twelve quadrats quadrats of each size were were ar~itrarily .with a variety variety of of vegctavegcra~itrarily locate~ locate~ in area.s area~ _with ti~:m terram conditions with expected bon and and terram cond1t1ons and and with expected high above observer observer counted high deer deer densities. densities. The The above counted deer per of area 1.7 times times more more deer per unit unit of area on 2 quadrats 0.648-km2 2 qua~rats qua~rats than 0.162-km quadrats, than on on O. l 62-km2 0.648-km but took longer per per unit of area but took 1.7 I . 7 times time longer uniL of area to search From 0 to 24 deer were counted on search them. them. From 24 deer were counted on each of quadrat quadrats, , but quadrats (7) each set set of but more more small quadrats tha~ l~~ge (2) had This suggested greater had 0 deer. deer. This suggested greater tha~ t-:11:gc vanabihty could be vanab1hty could be expected expected with with smaller mailer quadguadrats. Th.ey frequent rats. Th_ey also req~ired req~ired more more frequent maneuvenng of the which dt·trnt1t·d detracted maneuv nng of the hehcopter hehcoptt'r whid1 from searching deer. Therefore, Therefore, the from searching for for deer. the larger larger quadrat selected for for further evaluation. quadrat was selected further evaluation. �Next, of a quadrat quadrat 0.648 0.648 km22 was done done ext, testing testing of on the the 1, 722-km2 2 winter winter range previously de1,722-km range previously fined in Piceance Piceance Basin (Bartmann (Bartmann and and Steinert Steinert fined 1981). 1981). Sixty 0.648-km O.648-km22 quadrats quadrats were were randomly randomly selected without without replacement replacement and and without without the rethe reselected strictions placed on contiguous contiguous quadrats quadrats by strictions placed Kufeld et et al. (1980). douKufeld (1980). Quadrat Quadrat size was then then dou2 0.648-km2 bled by by randomly randomly selecting electing a second bled second 0.648-km quadrat on a cardinal cardinal side within same cadascadaswiLhin the the same quadraL tral section as each each original original quadrat. quadrat. The The resultresulttral section ant l1.295-km rectangular area area was flown as a ant .295-km2 2 rectangular wa flown unit and deer deer counted counted and and assigned assigned to the the proper unit and proper half. Deer density density estimate estimates for for each each size of of a half. Deer quadrat were were similar similar (Table (Table 1). Coefficient Coefficient of of quadrat variation was slightly slightly lower lower with the 1.295-km2 variation the l.295-km2 quadrat, but problems of of orientation orientation on the but problems the quad.rat, chis small increase increase in preprelarger l~r.ger unit unit outweighed outweighed this CISiOn. ci~ion. Table 1. 1. Counts Counts of of mule mule deer on 2 sizes of of quadrats quadrats OD on Table deer OD pinyon-juniper winter range range in Piceance Basin, Basin, 1973. N pinyon-juniper winter i-u Piceance 60. size size (km22) (km ----- Deer! Deer/ CV CV Preci-i Prec siona siona .! 2' SE km22 km (1: ) (%) (ji ) (%) No. o. of of quads. quads. with with deer 0o deer 0.648 0.648 40 7. 7.40 0.90 0. 90 11.42 11.42 94 94 20 14 14 1. 295 1.295 14.63 14.63 1. 56 1.56 11.30 11.30 82 18 4 Quad. Q uad . Dee r/quad. Deer!quad. aOne-half of of the the 90% 90% con confidence interval expressed as a a0ne-ha1f fidence interval expressed percentage of mean. percentage of the the m e3n . Actual Field Testing Testing ActuaJ Field Estimated sample sample size based based on on the above data Estimated the above data indicated 110 0.648-km 0.648-km2 2 quadrats quadrats should should allow indicated deer density density within within ± 15% of of x at at the ± 15% the eestimating timating deer 90% confidence confidence level. 1 I chose chose 120 for for the study 90% the study which necessitated necessitated selecting an additional additional which selecting 60 quadrats. Subsequent quadrat marking and marking and quadrals. ub equent quadrat counting similar to those counting procedures procedures were were similar those described by Kufeld et al. (1980). were Kufeld et (1980). Flights Flights were described made with with this this system system each each winter from 1973-80 made winter from 1973-80 except for for 1977. 1977. except Optimal time time for for censusing censusing was considered considered Optimal when essentially all deer the winter winter deer were were on the when essentially range sample area were widely distributed. . and were widely distributed rano-e sample area and To determine determine this condition, fixed-winofixed-wing airplane airplane To this condition. flights were made spot-check areas the flights were made to spot-check areas in the basin. Snow Snow conditions conditions influenced deer distribudistribubasin. influenced deer tion and optimal optimal counting tion and counting times times occurred occurred from from late December to early early February February with early to with early to late December mid-January most typical typical. There There was no no census census in mid-January most 1977 aas mild allowed many many deer 1977 mild weather weather allowed deer to remain above the sample area area all winter. winter. I served served remain above the sample observer-navigat.or each each year, f_here were were 3 as observer-navigator year but but there different main observers. different main observers. Results were appraised by comparing comparing the the Results were appraised census estimate estimate with census with a predicted predicted population population size. Each year's estimate was the starting base base for Each year s estimate the starting for calculating the following cu laling a predicted predicted population population size the following winter winter. . Sex-and-age Sex-and-age composition composition of of the the starting starting population estimated from aerial deer deer classififrom aerial population was estimated cations early December December preceding preceding the the census census cations in early (R.M. Bartrnann, Bartmann, unpubl. unpubl. data). initial popupopu(R.M. data). The The initial lation was then then adjusted, adjusted, in sequence, sequence, for for winter winter lation mortality (Bartmann 1984), 1984), hunter hunter harvest, harvest, and and mortality (Bartmann fawn production. harvest estimate estimate was from from the the fawn production. A harvest Colorado Division Division of of Wildlife's annual random random Colorado Wildlife's annual survey and and was arbitrarily arbitrarily inflated acksurvey inflated 25% to acknowledge and illegal illegal kill. Fawn Fawn nowledge wounding wounding loss and harvest not inignored as the the population population was not harvest was ignored cremented for production after cremented for production until until December, December, after the season. Addition of fawns the hunting hunting season. Addition of fawns yielded yielded a predicted entering winter. winter. ReaReapredicted population population size entering sonable agreement between the predicted between the predicted value value onable agreement and the census estimate estimate boosted and the census boosted confidence confidence in the the census. Agreement the 90% 90% Agreemem was considered considered when when the census. confidence interval about the the census census estimate estimate inconfidence interval about cluded the population size. Each years cluded the predicted predicted population Each year's comparison subjectively evaluated evaluated to comparison was also subjectively identify possible major major problems. identify possible problems. RESULTS RESULTS Conditions from 1973 1973 Conditions in Piceance Piceance Basin from through 1980 1980 were large fluctuafluctuathrough were conducive conducive to large tions in size of of the deer population. severe the deer population. A severe tions winter in 1973 1973 sharply sharply reduced reduced deer deer numbers. numbers. winter Increasingly mild winters winters from 19744 to 19788 Increasingly from 197 to 197 were conducive to population population increases. increases. Another Another were conducive severe winter occurred in 1979. 1979. PopuJation Population estisevere winter occurred mates from quadrat quadrat censuses censuses during during this same this same mates from period from 18,806 18,806 to to 34,952 period ranged ranged from 34,952 deer deer (Fig. 1). The census census estimate estimate in 1973, 1973, when when 2 sizes of of The quadrats were were compared compared, was con considered quadrats idered low for for several reasons; reasons; it was the the first first ex,perience eXferience with several with a new and the 1.295-km area area was diffidiffinew technique technique and the 1.295-kmcult to search. search. A predicted figure, calcult predicted population population figure, culated by working 1974 working backwards backwards from from the the 1974 culated census suggested 1 1/3 or more more of of the census estimate, estimate, suggested / 3 or the deer were missed in the the 1973 1973 census. census. The The 1974 1974 deer were missed estimate was also the the base estimate base for calculating calculating the the predicted population population size to compare compare with predicted with the the 1975 census. census. 1975 From 1975 1975 to 1980 1980, the census estimate estimate and and From the census predicted population size agreed agreed 3 out out of of 5 times. predicted population times. The lower estimate in 1975 1975 was attributed attributed to usThe lower estimate ing Hughes 500C 500C helicopter of a Bell ing a Hughes helicopter in lieu of 47G3B. poorer in the seatthe Hughes, Hughe , seat47G3B. Visibility Visibility was poorer ing cramped with 3 people front, and and the people in front, the ing was cramped main observer middle which main observer sat in the the middle which reduced reduced his counting counting efficiency. Because Because of of this, this, the the efficiency. predicted figure was considered considered to reflect to better better reflect predicted figure �DISCUSSION DISCUSSION 45 45 40 40 0 0 035 0 O~ .....•.. >< ..•.. )( -30 -30 0 0 C Q) Q) -. 0 25 O 25 00 0 0 •.. ~ 20 i20 E :, ~ zZ 1S 15 j j II 1 l 1 10 73 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 79 80 Year Year 1. Population Population estimates estimates from counts of of mule on Fig. I. from couots mule deer deer on 2 quadrats 120 (60 in 1973) 0.648-km 0.648-kmt quadrats on pinyon-juniper pinyon-juoiper winter range in Piceance Piceance Basin, Census estimate estimate winter range in. Basin., 1973-80. Census means (e) with confidence intervals intervals (vertical (vertical lines) lines) are are means (•) with 90% confidence compared wit.h with pTedicted predicted population (0). The The 1974 compared population sizes sizes (o). census estimate estimate was th-i th«; basis for predicted predicted population census basis for population sizes in in 1973 and and 1975. population status status and and was the the base for for the the 1976 1976 population predicted population. . The The predicted predicted value predicted population value was used this way again again in 1977 1977 when when there used there was no census. census. Predicted population population size and and the census Predicted the cen us estimate agreed in 1976 1976 and and 1978. 1978. In 1979, 1979, the the mate agreed census estimate estimate was again again far far below census below the the predicted predicted figure. Type Type of of helicopter, helicopter, experience of personfigure. experience of personnel, counting conditions, conditions, and deer distribution distribution nel, counting and deer seemed conducive conducive to a good good census census and and were seemed were rerejected as major major reasons reasons for difference. T The jected for the the difference. he 2 population figures agreed agreed again again in 1980, 1980, but the but the population figures count was considered low. A Bell Jet Jet Ranger Ranger count wa still considered was and the wa used used and the main main observer observer sat in the the rrear ear which forward visibility and effectiveness. which limited limited forward and effectiveness. Also, counting counting conditions were only fair as south ouch Also conditions were aspects had ground than than usual. These aspects had more more bare bare ground usual. These situations probably probably bad had little little influence influence on results results situations of the comparison as, with same precision, of th e compar ison as with the the same precision , the the census estimate could have about 8,000 8,000 censu e timate could have been been aboul deer higher and still contained contained the deer higher and the predicted predicted value confidence interval. interval. Of Of key signifisignifithe confidence value in the cance is that thee sharp sharp decline decline in deer deer numbers numbers Lhat th cance due the preceding severe winter reflected due to the preceding severe winter was reflected to a similar similar degree degree with both methods. both methods. estimates with Comparing census estimates Comparing census with predicted predicted population values is admittedly admittedly not not optimum. optimum. population values Since sources of of mortality mortality are not considered, considered, Since all sources are not predicted values could be high. high. Perhaps Perhaps it is coincoinpredicted values could cidence, but cidence-, but predicted predicted population population sizes in Fig. l1 are all higher higher than than corresponding are con-esponding census census estimates. Also Also, mortality and productivity data used used productivity data mates. mortality and calculate predicted are often often less to calculate predicted populations populations are precise than census census estimates. estimates. However, However, these these precise than data are are considered adequate to indicate direction data considered adequate indicate direction of annual annual population population changes. changes. Whenever of Whenever census census and predicted values disagreed, direction of and predicted values disagreed, direction of change also disagreed. disagreed. Those Those years when both change years when both figures did agree, agree, there good snow backfigures there was a good background for counting, a helicopter helicopter seating seating 3 in ground for counting, front used, and and deer deer were were widely distributed. front was used, widely distributed. These conditions existed in 1979 1979 when These conditions also existed when the the 2 population figures disagreed. disagreed. Noo explanation explanation 1s IS population figures available other other than random chance. chance. available than random Censusing mule deer deer in pinyon-juniper Censu ing mule pinyon-juniper vegetavegetation is not advised unless chances for for success are are tion not advised unless chances maximized. Minimally, this this mean means a good snow maximized. Minimally, good snow background and and a helicopter providing background helicopter pro iding good good visibility and seating seating 3 in front front. , Observer Observer experiexperibi lity and ence, although although not not assessed assessed here, here is also assumed assumed ence critical due to difficult difficult counting counting conditions critical due conditions in pinyon-juniper habitat. LeResche and and Rausch Rausch pinyon::juniper habitat. LeResche (1974) demonstrated the importance of both (1974) demonstrated the importance of both snow and current current observer observer experisnow background background and exper ience for counting moose air. ence for counting moose from from the the air. Effects of of deer deer distribution distribution on census census tesuhs results Effects are Population estimates estimates should should be are less obvious. obvious. Population more precise when deer deer are are widely distributed as more precise when widely distributed fewer should have have 0 deer. This This is supO deer. fewer quadrats quadrats should ported data in Table Table 2 where correported by data where a positive positive correlation was found found between between number number of quadrats of quadrats lation with 0 deer deer and and the the CV of of the the mean mean estimate estimate of of with O Table 2. Counts Counts of of mule deer on 120 0.648-km 0.648-km22 quadracs quadrats on Table mule deer pinyon-juniper Piceance Basin, Basin, 1973-80. 1973-80. pinyon-jtmiper winter winier range range in Piceance Deer/quad. Deer/qua d. Most deer deer on a quad.. quad No. ()f of /IQ. siona siona (%) (S) Preci Preci quads. quads. with with ~ K SE SE CV (%) (:t) 1974 1974 88.24 , 24 0.94 0.94 124 124 19 19 48 42 47. 1975 1975 7.07 7.07 0.81 0. 81 125 125' 19 19 37 J7 53 SJ 1976 1976 99.08 . 08 0.82 0.B2 99 15 39 27 1977 1977 No census No census 1978 197B 13.14 13 . 14 1.82 1.82 152 23 87 52 S2 1979 10.87 10.87 1.09 1.09 110 17 l7 54 31 11 1980 5.76 5. 76 0.78 0.78 149 149 22 4~ 44 56 Sf; Year deer 0o deer aOne-half 90% confidence confidence interval interval e.xpresse<J expressed as a aOne -ha lf of the th e 90~ percent t of mean.. percen of the the mean �deer density r = 0.90, P < < 0.05). This relationship indicates indicates timing of the census is is important important due to influence of snow on deer distribution. distribution. This was was exemplified in 1974 when logistical problems problems forced rescheduling rescheduling the census after after 20 quadrats quadrats were searched. The The census was was first attempted tempted 1 day after after aa 10- to to 15-crn 15-cm snowfall. snowfall. In a recount recount 99 days later, only 1 of 6 high high elev~tion elevation quadrats quadrats had deer, whereas earlier earlier all all 6 contained deer. Only l1 of 14 lower elevation quadrats quadrats had 0o deer deer each time. Precision Precision of deer deer population population estimates in Piceance Basin Basin ranged ranged from ± ± 15 15 to 23% of x at the 90% confidence confidence level. level. This is is similar to that reported reported by Kufeld et al. al. (1980) with 193 quadrats and atified sampling and str stratified sampling in similar habitat. Such precision is is acceptable to managers managers in Colorado who have implemented implemented the quadrat quadrat census on other other deer deer winter ranges. However, the greatest greatest concern is is still still counting counting accuracy which should have aa high priority priority in future future research. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank L. Carpenter, Carpenter, J. Klein, and S. S. Steinert Steinert for field assistance and A. A. Anderson, D. Baker, D. Reed for reviewing the G. Bear, and D. manuscript. __ -,, and S.F. Steinert. Steinert. 1981. Distribution Distribution and movements of of mule deer deer in the White River drainag,e, drainage, Colorado. Colorado. Colo, Colo. Div, Div. Wild!. Wild!. Spec. Rep. 51. 12pp. Bergerud, Bergerud, A.T., AT., and F. Manuel. 1969. Aerial census of of moose in central central Newfoundland. Newfoundland. J. J. Wild!. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 33:910-916. 33:910-916. Evans, Evans, C..E., C.E., W.A. Troyer, Troyer, and C.J. Lensink. 1966. Aerial census of moose by quadrat quadrat samWild!. Manage. 30:767-776. pling units. J. Wild!. Gill, Gill, R.B. R.B. 1969, 1969. A quadrat quadrat count count system for est1mating timating game populations. populations. Colo. Div. Div. Game, Fish Fish and Parks Game Inf. In£. Leafl. 76. 2 pp. Kufeld, R.C., R.C., J.H. J.H. Olterman, alterman, and D.C. Bowden. 1980. A helicopter helicopter quadrat quadrat census for mule deer deer on Uncompahgre Uncompahgre Plateau, Colorado. J. J. Wildl. Wild!. Manage. 44:632-639. 44:632-639. LeResche, R.E., and R.A. Rausch. 1974. Accuracy and precision of aerial moose censusing. J. J. Wild!. Wild!. Manage. 38:175-182. 38:175-182. J. OutMangold, R.E. 1966. How many deer? N. N.J. Out-.. doors 17:8-13. Pojar, T,M,, T.M., D.C. Bowden, R.B. Gill, Gill, and M.P. Elkins. Elkins. 1984. Comparison of of strip vs. vs. quadrat quadrat census of pronghorn. pronghorn. Proc. Bienn. Pronghorn Pronghorn Antelope Antelope Workshop 10:47-49. 10:47-49. Siniff, D.lB., D.B., and R.0. R.O. Skoog. 1964. Aerial census of caribou using stratified stratified random random sampling. J. Wild!. Wildl. Manage. 28:391-401. LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE Bartmann, Bartmann, R.M. R.M. 1983. 1983. Estimating mule deer winter mortality in Colorado. J. Wild!. Wildl. Mruiage. Manage. winter 48:in press. Richar Richardd M. M. Bartmann Bartmann Wildlife Researcher Researcher March 1983 �. ../ ;,> Outdc,or FaGt_s --- PUBLISH ED BY TH PUBLISHED THEE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTM ENT OF NATURAL DEPARTMENT NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION DIVISION OF WILDLI WilDLIFEFE d · .:•~· ... ~, I~~i ,. ',,' .... ~~ . - Number Number 110 no Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet PORT ABLE COMPUTER PORTABLE COMPUTER SYSTEM SYSTEM FOR FIELD PROCESSING PROCESSING BIOTELEMETRY BIOTELEMETRY TRIANGULATION TRIANGULATION DATA Collection Collection of of animal animal movement movement data data using using biotelemetry triangulation systems telemetry triangulation systems can generate generate large large volumes volumes of of data. data. Typically, Typically, field workers workers use hand-written hand-written data data forms forms to record record azimuths azimuths from from receiver receiver locations locations to the the animal animal with a later later transfer format transfer to a computer-readable computer-readable format for for comcomplete plete analysis. analysis. Data Data quality quality is seldom seldom evaluated evaluated during during this process process because because of of the the complexity complexity of of calculations. calculations. Hence, Hence, needed needed corrective corrective measures measures or or adjustmen adjustmentsts in data data collection collection procedures procedures are are seldom seldom identified identified until until after after the the cracking tracking session is completed. completed. In this Leaflet Leaflet we describe describe use of of a portable portable computer computer to record, record, evaluate, evaluate, and and store store telemetry telemetry data data as they they are are collected collected in the the field. The system was developed developed for a study study of of summer summer The habitat mule deer habitat use by mule deer (Odocoileus heminnus) hemionus) in northwestern Colorado northwestern Colorado conducted conducted cooperatively cooperatively by Los Alamos Alamos National National Laboratory, Laboratory, Colorado Colorado Division of Wild Wildlife, and Colorado Colorado State State UniversiUniversiDi vision of life, and ty. ty. With With this system, system, animal animal locations locations can be calculated and and grap graphically and numerically numerically displayed displayed culated hically and immediately. tracking immediately. Upon Upon completion completion of of the the tracking session, session, data data are are off-loaded off-loaded from from the the portable portable computer computer to a main-frame main-frame computer computer via telephone for complete complete processing. processing. phone METHODS METHODS The The triangulation triangulation system system used used in this study study emnent 10.5-m ployed ployed 8 perma permanent 10.5-m tall antenna antenna towers towers arranged arranged in equilateral equilateral triangles triangles approximately approximately 2 km on a side. Simultaneous Simultaneous azimuths azimuths to a radioradiocollared collared deer deer were were taken taken from from 3 towers towers and and comcommunicated municated by 2-way radio radio to the the person person at at one one of of the cowers towers who was operating operating the the portable portable comcomthe puter. puter. A second second person person recorded recorded the the data data on standard computer computer forms forms in the the event event of of a comcomstandard puter puter failure. failure. A Radio Radio Shack Shack TRS-80 TRS-80 Model Model 100 100 portable portable computer, computer, with 32k 32k bytes bytes of of memory, memory, processes processes and and stores stores triangulation triangulation data data as they they are are collectcollected. ed. Four Four AA 1.5-volt lo5-volt dry dry cells provide provide 20 hours hours of of processing processing time time with 8 to 20 days days of of memory memory retention, retention, depending depending on the the amount amount of of data data stored, he unit stored, after after the the dry dry cells are are depleted. depleted. T The unit measures measures 21 x 30 x 5 cm and and weighs weighs = = 2 kg. The BASIC with The computer computer is programmed programmed in BASIC with approximately approximately 200 200 lines of of code code utilizing utilizing 3k bytes bytes of of memory memory (Appendix). (Appendix). Upon Upon execution, execution, this code code requests requests the the user user enter enter the the azimuth azimuth standstandard ard deviation deviation for for use with the the maximum maximum likelihood (ML) estimator estimator of Le Lenth used in the the hood nth ((1981) 1981) used program program to calculate calculate the the 95% 95% confidence confidence area area of of a location location estimate. estimate. Next, Next, the the identities identities of of the the 3 towers to be be used used during during the the data data collection collection sessestowers are requested. requested. The The Universal Universal Transverse Transverse sion are Mercator Mercator (UTM) (UTM) coordinates coordinates (U.S. (U.S. Army Army 1973) 1973) of of the the 3 to 8 towers towers on the the study study area area are are stored stored in a previously previously prepared prepared file on the the portable portable comcomputer. puter. After After these these prelimir:iary prelimiQary steps, steps, the the program program enters enters a data data collection collection and and processing processing loop. loop. The The user user is requested requested to enter enter an animal animal identification identification code code (usually (usually the the radio radio frequency) frequency) and and the the azimuths imuths from from each of of the the 3 towers. towers. These These values values plus their their associated associated tower tower identity identity and and the the current date from current date and and time time obtained obtained from the the computer's computer's internal internal clock are are written written to a file on the hus, the the random random access memory memory (RAM). T Thus, the user user is not not required required to provide provide the the date date or or time time of of the the location. location. After After the the values values are are stored, stored, graphical graphical and and nunumerical outputs are provided on the merical outputs are provided the 239 x fi3-pixel llow evaluarion 53-pixel display display screen screen to aallow evaluation of of the the location location (Fig. 1). Towers Towers are are plotted plotted as 3 x 3-pixel 3-pixel squares squares with azimuths azimuths shown shown as lines �radiating radiating from them. Hence, the user can visually visually assess assess closeness closeness of the 3 intersections that make up the location estimate. For example, if Tower Tower 2 is reading reading an off-axis off-axis null from the antenna antenna syssysis rem, tem, this azimuth azimuth will will not properly properly intersecr intersect with others (Fig. 2) 2) and corrective measures can be the others taken. Analytical Analytical results are shown along the left taken. side of the display, display, including the estimate of the UTM coordinates coordinates of the location and and the area of ellipse. the 95% confidence ellipse. After completing completing the tracking tracking session, session, the data After can be permanently permanently stored on a cassette tape unit compatible with the portable portable computer. computer. However, a major advantage of this system system is is that the data can also be transferred transferred by telephone telephone to aa mainframe computer computer for complete processing. The The TRS-80 Model 100 100 computer computer has a built-in 300-baud modem and a terminal emulation program which allow allow convenient convenient off-loading of the data. DISCUSSION DISCUSSION The system system described provides 2 advantages The over conventional techniques. First, people colcollecting triangulation triangulation data can verify its quality while still still in the field and immediately apply necessary corrective measures. In addition, if an animal moves moves beyond the area area where acceptable locations can be taken, e.g., the confidence ellipse ellipse area is is greater greater than a specified value, aa different different animal can be monitored monitored or observers can move different set of towers. Thus, Thus, quality of the to a different data is is improved while while the level level of effort effort is is the same as with conventional techniques. A second advantage of the system is that that huintervention in in data recording recording is only necesman intervention sary once -- when the user enters enters azimuths into the portable portable computer. computer. This reduces data handling over conventional methods and minimizes the potential potential for recording recording errors. errors. The The 32k-byte memory of the portable portable computer used in this study can store > 400 locations before the RAM is is full. full. However, locations can be saved saved in the field with with aa battery operated operated cassette tape tape recorder. recorder. The The computer computer can aJso also be used to perform perform more complicated analyses, analyses, such as home range estimates or rate of movement, and hard hard range output can be obtained with the addicopy of the output tion of of aa printer. printer. However, we we believe aa thorough analysis analysis of triangulation triangulation data would would thorough generally require require a larger larger computer computer for which more sophisticated sophisticated statistical statistical packages are availavailable. The The TRS-80 Model 100 100 does not have aa FORTRAN FORTRAN compiler, so so most available available biotelemetry software would be compatible only if the translated to BASIC. BASIC. codes were first translated The 00 with 32k memory The TRS-80 Model l100 along with wilh a portable portable cassette tape unit and assoassoapproximately $1000. Similar ciated cables costs approximately portable portable computers computers are available from olher other manufacturers ufacturers at comparable costs. costs. Advantages of aa portable portable computer computer easily easily justify the expenditure, expenditure, especially especially when the the high costs costs of telemetry telemetry equipment ment and manpower manpower to perform perform the tracking are considered. Fig. 1. Screen Screen of of the the TRS-80 TRS-80 Model 100 portable portable computer computer with r iangulatioo az. with a set of of t. triangulation azimuths imuths illustrating illustrating a good location tion estimate. estimate. Screen of of the the TRS-80 TRS-80 Fig. 2. Screen Model Model 100 100 portable portable computer computer displaying displaying a set of of triangulation triangulation azimuths azimuths where where one one observer observer bas has read read the the backside backside of of the the nullnullpeak peak antenna. antenna. �ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Critical comments comments provided provided by R.M. Bartmann, Bartmann, LL. I.L. Brisbin, Jr., Jr., L.H. Carpenter, Carpenter, R.B. R.B. Gill, Gill, and R.C. Kufelc! Kufelc. are greatly appreciated. appreciated. Financial suppon support was was provided provided by the U.S. Department Department of Energy contract contract W-7405-ENG-36 to Los Alamos National Laboratory, Laboratory, Colorado Colorado Federal Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Restoration Project #45-01-502-15050, #45-01-502-15050, and Exxon Company, U.S.A. LITERATURE LITERA TURE CITED CITED Len th, R. V. 1981. On finding Lenth, R.V. finding the source source of of a signal. Tecbnometrics Technometrics 23(2):149-154. 23(2):149-154. U.S. Army, 1973. Universal Transverse Transverse Mercator Mercator Grid. TM Department TM 5-241-8, Headquarters, Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, Washington, D.C. 64 pp. Gary C. White White Robert Robert A. Garrott Garrott E."lvironmental Environmental Science, MS-K495 Los Alamos National Laboratory Laboratory Los Alamos, NM 87545 87545 JANli JI\ ~q;;:rl �APPENDIX APPENDIX - Listing Listing of of the the BASIC BASIC code code for for TRS-80 TRS-80 Model Model 100 100 portable portable computer computer for for a 3- to 8-tower 8-tower system system using using 3 towers towers simultaneously simultaneously for for triangulation. triangulation. 10 10 DEFINT DEFINT I-N 20 DIM ,B (2) DIM AZ(3),UTM(2,8),IT(3},A(2,2) AZ(3).UTM(2,8),IT(3),A(2,2),B(2) 30 PI-=ATN(1.)*4. PI=ATN(1. )*4. 40 INPUT "Azimuth "Azimuth Standard Standard Oeviation";CP Deviation";CP 44 'Convert 'Convert azimuth azimuth standard standard deviation deviation to kk appa appa 45 CP-=EXP(CP~2•(-0.5}•PI/180.) CP=EXP(CP~2*(-0.5)*PI/180.) 46 CP-=1./(2 . •(1.-CP)+(1.-CP)~2•(.48794-.829 CP=1./(2.*(1.-CP)+(1.-CP)~2*(.48794-.829 OS•CP-1.3915•CP~2)/CP) 05*CP-1.3915*CP~2)/CP) 50 INPUT "Tower 1 ),IT(2),IT(31 "Tower numbers";IT( numbers";IT(1).IT(2).IT(3) 60 60 OPEN OPEN "ram:towers.do "ram:towers.do" " FOR FOR INPUT AS 11 70 FOR I1=1 -= 1 TO 88 80 INPUT #1 ,UTM(1,I),UTM( 2,I) '1.UTM(1.I).UTM(2.I) 90 90 NEXT NEXT II 100 100 CLOSE CLOSE 11 111 111 XX=UTM{1,IT(1)) XX=UTM(1.IT(1» 112 XN=XX XN=XX 113 113 YX-=UTM(2,!T(1)) YX=UTM(2,IT(1» 114 YN=YX VN=VX 115 115 FOR 1=2 I=2 TO 3 116 IF ,IT(I)) THEN IF XX< XX < UTM(1 UTM(1,IT(I» THEN XX=UTM(1,IT(I) XX=UTM(1.IT(I) ) 117 F XN > UTM(1,IT(I)) THEN 117 IIF UTM(1,IT(I» THEN XN=UTM(1.IT(I) XN=UTM(1.IT(I) ) 118 THEN 118 IF YX VX < UTM(2,IT(I)) UTM(2,IT(I» THEN YX=UTM(2,!T(I) YX=UTM(2.IT(I) ) 119 IF THEN IF YN VN >> UTM(2.IT(I)) UTM(2,IT(I» THEN YN-=UTM(2,IT(I) YN=UTM(2,IT(I) ) 121 121 NEXT NEXT II 130 130 XX=XX•1.3 XX=XX*1.3 131 XN-=XN/1.3 131 XN=XN/1. 3 132 YX=YX• 1.3 YX=YX*1.3 133 YN-=YN/1.3 YN=YN/1.3 134 YC=63/(YX-YN) YC=63/(VX-VN) 135 135 XC=63/(XX-XN) XC=63/(XX-XN) 136 136 IF IF YC > XC THEN THEN YC=XC VC=XC 137 137 IF IF XC > YC THEN THEN XC=YC XC=YC 200 CLS : OPEN "ram:azimth" CLS:OPEN "ram:azimth" FOR APPEND APPEND AS 11 210 ON ERROR ERROR GOTO GOTO 300 300 300 :INPUT "Animal Id 300 CLS CLS:INPUT id & & 3 3 azimuths":10$,A azimuths";ID$.A Z( 1) 1) .AZ ,AZ(2) ,AZ(3)) Z( (2) .AZ(3 330 330 IF IF IO$ ID$ == "end" "end" THEN THEN GOTO GO TO 3000 3000 350 \\ \\ \\ \\ 350 PRINT PRINT #1,USING '1,USING "\ III #I H## N#I H # HH#";DATE$;TIME$;ID$; III";DATE$;TIME$;ID$; \\ #, ### IT(1J ; AZ( 11);IT(2);AZ(2);IT(3);AZ(3) );IT(2):AZ(2);1T(3):AZ( 3) IT(1);AZ( 360 360 GOSUB GOSUB 500 500 370 GOTO GOTO 300 499 499 'Code to summarize summarize azimuths azimuths and plot 500 s ":ID$ 500 CLS:PRINT CLS:PRINT "ld "Id iis ";ID$ 501 PRINT ""Azimuths Azimuths ";AZ (1) :AZ(2);AZ(3 ) ";AZ(1);AZ(2);AZ(3) 510 60,0) - (160,63) 510 LINE (1 (160.0)-(160,63) 511 LINE ((159,0)-(159,63) 159,0 >- ( 159,63) 520 =1 TO 33 520 FOR 11=1 530 X-=UTM( X=UTM(1,IT(I» 530 1. IT lI ) ) 540 , IT(I)) 540 V-=UTM(2 Y=UTM(2,IT(I» 550 550 GOSUB GOSUB 1000 560 XE-=X:YE XE=X:YE=V 560 =Y 570 570 R-=XX·XN R=XX-XN 580 !F IF YX-YN VX-VN >> R THEN THEN R=YX-YN R=YX-VN 580 585 AZ(I ) = (90.-A Z(I))-(PI/180) AZ(I)=(90.-AZ(I»*(PI/180) 590 - 0.1•(XX-XN) 590 R-=R R=R-O.1*(XX-XN) 600 (1,IT(I)) 600 X-=R•COS(AZ(I))+UTM X=R*COS(AZ(I»+UTM(1.IT(I» 610 610 Y=R•SIN(AZ(I))+UTM(2.IT(I)) V=R*SIN(AZ(I»+UTM(2,IT(I» 615 X=INT((X-XN)*XC)+175 X=INT«X-XN)*XC)+175 616 V:INT((YX-Y)•YC) V=INT«VX-V)*VC) 620 620 IF IF X X < 160 THEN THEN GOTO GOTO 590 590 630 630 IF IF Y V < 00 THEN THEN GOTO GOTO 590 640 640 IF IF X X > 239 239 THEN THEN GOTO GDTO 590 590 650 650 IF IF Y V >> 63 THEN THEN GOTO GOTO 590 590 680 llNE(XE.YE)-(X.Y) LINE(XE,VE)-(X,V) 680 770 NEXT NEXT fI 770 771 GOSUB GOSUB 2000 2000 772 772 PRINT PRINT "Location:" "Location:" PRINT "x-=";Xl "x=";XL 773 PRINT 774 ;Yl 774 PRINT PRINT "y=" "y=";VL 776 776 PRINT PRINT "Confidence "Confidence ellipse ellipse (ha)• (ha)" 777 PRINT;EA PRINT;EA 779 779 INPUT INPUT "Next";I "N~xt";I RETURN 780 RETURN 1000 X=INT((X-XN)*XC+175) X=INT«X-XN)*XC+175) 1010 Y=INT((YX·Y)•YC) V=INT«VX-V)*VC) 1020 - 1,Y-1) - (X+1 ,Y+1) ,1 . BF 1020 llNE(X LINE(X-1.V-i)-(X+1.Y+1>,1,BF 1030 RETURN RETURN 2000 2000 ON ERROR ERROR GOTO 779 2005 NI=O NI=O 2010 2))+UTM(1,IT(3 2010 XL=(UTM(1,IT(1))+UTM(1,IT( XL=(UTM(1.IT(1»+UTM(1.IT(2»+UTM(1,IT(3 )))/3 »)/3.. 2020 1))+UTM(2,I T( 2))+UTM(2,IT(3 2020 Yl=(UTM(2.IT( VL=(UTM(2.IT(1»+UTM(2,IT(2»+UTM(2,IT(3 )))/3. »)/3. 2050 2050 CV$="f" CV$="f" 2060 2060 IN$="t" 2070 2070 FOR I=1 1=1 TO 22 2080 =O. 2080 B(I) B(I)=O. 2090 = 1 TO 22 2090 FOR FOR JJ=1 22100 100 A J ) =O. A (I (I ..J) =0. 2110 2110 NEXT NEXT ,J J 2120 2120 NEXT NEXT II 2130 2130 FOR 1=1 1=1 TO 33 2140 2140 SI=SIN(AZ(I)) SI=SIN(AZ(I» 2150 2150 CI-=COS(AZ(I)) CI=COS(AZ(I» 2160 .IT(l) ) 2160 ZI=SI•UTM{1,IT(l))-CI•UTM(2 ZI=SI*UTM(1,IT(I»-CI*UTM(2.IT(I» 2170 2170 IF IF IN$ IN$ == "f" "f" THEN GOTO 2200 2200 2180 2180 SS=SI 2190 2190 CS=CI CS=CI 2195 GOTO GOTD 2230 2230 2200 Yl·UTM( 2,IT ( 2200 DI=SOR((XL-UTM(1,IT(I)))A2+( DI=SQR«XL-UTM(1.IT(I»)~2+(VL-UTM(2,IT( I))~2) 1)))~21 2210 ( I)))/(DIA3) 2210 SS=(Yl-UTM(2,JT SS=(VL-UTM(2,IT(I»)/(DI~3) 2220 )))/(DI ~3) 2220 CS-=(XL-UTM(1,!T(I CS=(XL-UTM(1,IT(I»)/(DI~3) 2230 2230 A( A( 1,1)=A(1,1)+SI•SS 1,1 )=A( 1.1)+SI*SS 2240 A(2.2)=A(2,2)+Ci*CS A(2.2)=A(2,2)+CI*CS 2240 2250 2250 A(1,2)=A(1,2)-CI~ss A(1.2)=A(1,2)-CI*SS 2260 2260 A(2,1)=A(2.1)-Sl•CS A(2, 1)=A(2,1 )-SI*CS 2270 B(1)=8(1)+SS•ZI B(1)=B(1)+SS*ZI 2280 2280 8(2)=8(2)-CS•ZI B(2)=B(2)-CS*ZI 2290 2290 NEXT II 2300 -A (2,1)•8(1))/(A(1,1)•A(2 2300 YM=(A(1.1)*8(2) VM=(A(1. 1)*B(2)-A(2,1)*B(1»/(A(1,1)*A(2 ,2)-A(2,1)•A(1,2)) •. .2)-A(2.1)*A(1.2» 2310 XM=(B(1)-A(1,2)•YM)/A(1,1) XM=(B( 1)-A( 1.2)*VM)/A( 1,1) 2310 2315 IN$z"f" IN$="f" 2320 IF IF ABS(XM-Xl)/XM ABS(XM-XL)/XM < 0.00001 0.00001 ANO AND ABS(YM-Yl ABS(VM-VL 2320 )/YM )/YM < 0.00001 0.00001 THEN THEN CV$="t" CV$="t" 2330 2330 Xl=XM:YL=YM XL=XM:VL=YM 2340 NI=NI+1 NI=NI+1 2350 2350 IF IF CV$= CV$ = "f" "f" ANO AND NI< NI < 20 20 THEN THEN 2070 2070 2360 2360 'Convergence 'Convergence achieved· achieved - get vc mat 2365 ON ON ERROR ERROR GOTO 772 2367 V1 -=0.:V2:0. V3=0. V1=0. :V2=0. ::V3=0. 2370 2370 FOR 1=1 1=1 TO 33 2380 2380 Sl=SIN(AZ(I)) SI=SIN(AZ(I» 2390 2390 CI=COS(AZ(I CI=COS(AZ(I»)) 2400 2400 01=SOR((XL·UTM(1,1T(l)))~2+(Yl-UTM(2,IT( DI=SQR«XL-UTM(1.IT(I»)~2+(VL-UTM(2.IT( I))~2) r) »~2) 2410 2410 CS=(Xl·UTM(1,IT(I)})/(DI~3) CS=(XL-UTM(1.IT(I»)/(DI~3) 2420 2420 SS=(YL·UTM(2,IT(I)))/(DI~3) SS=(VL-UTM(2.IT(I»)/(DI~3) 2430 2430 V1=V1+SI•SS V1=V1+SI*SS 2440 2440 V2=V2+CI•Ss+s1•cs V2=V2+CI*SS+SI*CS 2450 2450 V3=V3+CI•CS V3=V3+CI*CS 2460 2460 NEXT II 2470 2470 V2=V2•(-0.5) V2=V2*(-0.5) 2490 2490 DI=1./([V1•V3-V2~2)•CP~2) DI=1./«V1*V3-V2~2)*CP~2) 2500 2500 EA=0.0001•PI•S.99•SOR(DI) EA=0.0001*PI*5.99*SQR(DI) 2505 ON ERROR ERROR GOTO GOTD 300 2510 2510 RETURN RETURN 3000 3000 CLS 3010 ilable memory l ows";INT(FRE( 3010 PRINT PRINT "Ava "Available memory al allows";INT(FRE( 0)/47) 0)/47) 3011 PRINT PRINT "locations "locations to be stored stored before• before" 3012 PRINT PRINT ''dumping "dumping file 'azimth. 'az1mth.do' 3012 do' to tape" 3013 3013 PRINT PRINT "or to to another another computer." computer." 3030 3030 END �... -- Outd~or Facts Iii{..fI/ PUBUSHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES OF WILDLIFE OIVISlON DIVISION OF WilDLIFE . ~ • Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet ,,, .. ~~--· Number Number 111 IDENTIFICATION IDENTIFICA TION OF GROUSE GROUSE SPECIES SPECIES BY HUNTERS HUNTERS IN IN NORTHWESTERN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO: COLORADO: IMPLICATIONS IMPLICATIONS FOR FOR MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT Until 1955 1955 there there was an aggregate aggregate bag bag limit limit Until species of grouse grouse harvested harvested in Colorado. Colorado. for all species From From 1956 1956 through through 1981, 1981, there there were were aggregate aggregate bag and and possession possession limits for sage grouse grouse (Ce-ntro(Centrobag cercus urophasianus) urophasianus) and and Columbian Columbian sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse uchus phasianellus phasianellus columbianus). grouse (Tympan (Tympanuchus columbianus). Historically, management management and and enforcement enforcement perperHistorically, sonnel sonnel supported supported aggregate aggregate bag limits on sage and sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse because because they they believed believed and that that many many hunters hunters could could not not distinguish distinguish between between them. them. Because Because the the ranges ranges of of these these 2 species overoverRoutt and and eastern eastern Moffat Moffat counties counties and and lap in Routt they they may may be found found in similar similar habitats habitats during during the the hunting season, season, there there is potential potential for misidentifimisidentifihunting cation. cation. Columbian Columbian sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse (Fig. 1) currentcurrenthave a low harvest harvest rate rate in Colorado Colorado (Colo. Div. ly have Wild!. 1983). 1983). To To increase increase hunter hunter recreational recreational opportunity opportunity and and harvest harvest of of this species, a separate separate bag limit limit was considered considered as as one one management management alalbag ternative. A survey survey was designed designed to measure measure the the ternative. ability ability of of hunters hunters to to identify identify the the species they bagged bagged and and to learn learn if species-specific species-specific harvest harvest regulations could could be implemented. implemented. gulations Data Data were were collected collected in Routt Routt County County from from 1981 983 at hunter 1981 through through l1983 hunter check check stations stations durduring the the initial initial weekend weekend of of the the grouse grouse season each each ing year. year. Check Check stations stations were were located located primarily primarily to survey sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse hunters, hunters, but but it was also survey possible for for hunters hunters to harvest harvest sage grouse grouse and and possible blue blue grouse grouse (Dendragapus (Dendragapus obscurus) obscurus) in the the same areas. All successful successful hunters hunters were were asked asked to identiidentiareas. fy the the species of grouse grouse they they bad had shot. shot. Seventy-five of of 148 hunters hunters (50. (50.7%) contacted 7%) contacted Seventy-five in 1981 were were successful successful in harvesting harvesting at at least 1 grouse. Of 25 hunters with an aggregate bag of sharp-tailed grouse, grouse, only 1 (4.0%) could could sage aand nd sharp-tailed not not differentiate differentiate between between the the 2 species. However, However, to correctly 33 of of 31 hunters hunters (9.7%) (9.7%) were were unable unable to correctly identify blue blue grouse. grouse. Because Because most most hunters identify hunters (>90%) surveyed surveyed in 1981 were were able able to identify (>90%) identify the the grouse grouse they they harvested, harvested, the the 198:2 1982 and and 1983 1983 grouse grouse harvest harvest regulations regulations specified specified separate separate bag bag and sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse·. grouse. limits for sage and hunters encountered encountered at grous,e grouse check check staAll hunters tions were tions in Routt Routt County County in 1982 1982 and and 1983 1983 were asked asked if if they they were were aware aware of of the the separate separate bag bag limit limit regulations and and were were also asked asked to identify the regulations identify the g .,. . ~ ~ ~~Sl~ . ,;!,,:' ,:_~,, ._!,, 4 '-9 ~t Fig. 1. 1. The The Columbian Columbian sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse offers offers addition• additiona] unters who al recreationaJ recreational opportunity opportunity for for small small game game h1 hunters who are are able able to distinguish distinguish it from from sage sage grouse. grouse. (Photo (Photo by by K. Giesen) Giesen) �grouse they they harvested. Sixty-five of of 74 hunters hunters grnuse harvested. Sixty-five (87.8%) and 49 49 of of 52 hunters (94.2%) in 1982 1982 (87 .8 %) and hunters (94.2%) Table 1. Hunter Hunter identification of grouse grouse species species in Routt Routt Table identification of County, Colorado, Colorado, 1981-83.• 1981-83.a County, respectively, were aware of the and 1983, respectively, separate regulations. In 1982, 1982, 59 of of 74 separate bag bag regulations. In hunters (79. (79.7%) successful in bagging at hunters 7%) were were successful bagging at least 1 grouse grouse and and all but were able least but 3 hunters hunters were able to identify the the species grouse they they bagged. These identify species of of grouse bagged. These were unable unable to identify grouse. 3 hunters hunters were identify blue blue grouse. In 1983, 1983,3838 of of 52 hunters (73.1%) hunters (73 . l %) interviewed interviewed were successful in harvesting grouse and and only only 3 were successful harvesting grouse (7.9%) the species species of (7 .9%) were were unable unable to identify identify the grouse they they bagged. These hunters had a comcomgrouse bagged. These hunters had bination of blue and sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse but bination of blue and grouse but misidentified the the birds birds as juvenile sage grouse. grouse. misidentified juvenile sage Of 55 hunters who had had both and sharpOf hunters who both sage and sharptailed grouse in the bag in 1981-83, 1981-83, only only l1 tailed grouse the bag (1.8%) could could nol not distinguish distinguish between species. (1.8%) between the the species. Thus, most can differentiate Thus, most hunters hunters can differentiate between between and sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse (Fig. 2) and and can posage and potentially take advantage of of separate separate bag bag limits. Limits. tentially take advantage More hunters (N = 9) were correctly More hunters were unable unable to correctly identify blue grouse than sage grouse grouse (3 hunters) hunters) identify blue grouse than sage or sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse (5 hunters) hunters) (Table (Table 1). Most Most or Speci es Species Blue grouse grouse Blue Sage grouse Sage grouse Sharp-tailed grouse Sharp-ta iled grouse Successful Successful hunters, hunters. !t~ Hunters m misidentifying isidenti fying Hunters species species Ji :'; % 91 9 9.9 96 96 144 3 3.1I 3. 5 3.5 3.5 hunters contacted contacted were successful a172 of 274 hunters were successf ul in harvesting harvesting at least l1 grouse. hunters actually harvested sharptails were hunters who who actually harvested sharptails were apparently hu.nting hunting specifically specifically for for them, them, whereas whereas apparently some hunters were hunting the some hunters were hunting for for "grouse" "grouse" in the forested areas areas of of Routt Routt County County and and only only encounencounforested tered blue grouse. grouse. tered blue These data indicate that most successful These data indicate that most successful hunters are able able to identify species of of grouse grouse hunters are idemjfy the tl1e species they can benefit from specific specific regulathey harvest harvest and and can benefit from regulations for each each species. species. Because Because the the number of number of tions for grouse hunters hunters in Colorado Colorado has has remained remained relarelagrouse tively stable in the the last decade, decade, even even when when grouse grouse tively stable seasons have generally become (Colo. Div. become longer longer (Colo. seasons have generally Wild!. 1983), 1983), the the separate separate bag limit regulations WjJdl. bag limit regulations effective method of increasing harvest may be be an effective method of increasing harvest and hunter hunter recreational recreational opportunity. opportunity. and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere appreciation appreciation is extended extended to R. HoffHoffSincere man, and J. Haskins Haskins for for assistance assistance in man, G. Miller, Miller, and collecting data at check check stations. stations. C. C. Braun, Braun, R. R. collecting data Hoffman, and M. Szymczak Szymczak provided Hoffman, and provided critical critical rerethe manuscript. manuscript. view of of the LITERA TURE CITED CITED LITERATURE Colorado Division of Wildlife. 1983. 1982 1982 Colorado Division Wildlife. 1983. Colorado small game, game, furbearer and varmint varmint Colorado forbearer and harvest. Colo. Div. Wild!., Denver. 210pp. harvest. Colo. Wildl., Denver. 210pp. Wings of of sharp-tailed sharp-tailed grouse grouse (t.op) (top) and and sage sage grouse Fig. 2. Wings grouse (bottom) are are easily easily differentiated differentiated on on the of size and and the basis basis of (bottom) plumage characteristics. characteristics. (Photo (Photo by G. Tischbein) Tischbein) plumage Kenneth M. Giesen Giesen Kenneth Wildlife Researcher Researcher Wildlife April 1984 1984 April �.--"/ -- ./ PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DIVISION DIVISION OF OF WILDLIFE WilDLIFE A 4,t. ~ · ~ I Game Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet I j ....~ . Number Number 112 112 EXP ANDING TELEMETRY EXPANDING TELEMETRY COLLAR COLLAR FOR FOR ELK ELK CALVES CALVES 11 Marking Marking young young ungulates ungulates with with collars collars that that expand expand as the anjmal animal grows is a perplexing perplexing probproblem to researchers researchers and and wildlife wildlife managers. managers. Recent Recent advent advent of of telemetry telemetry equipment equipment has complicated complicated the the problem problem by adding adding weight weight to the the collars. collars. Michael Michael Schlegel, Idaho Idaho Fish Fish and and Game Game DepartDepartment, ment, developed developed an expanding expanding collar collar for elk calves calves to accommodate accommodate a telemetry telemetry transmitter transmitter (pers. commun. commun. 1978). This This collar collar was construcconstructed from from two strips strips of colored colored nylon nylon flagging mamated terial terial (IO (10 cm wide) wide) sewn together together enclosing enclosing the the transmitter. transmitter. Diameter Diameter of the collar collar was reduced reduced by sewing sewing an an elastic elastic strip strip inside inside the collar collar and and gathering gathering it together together in "accordian "accordian fasruon" fashion" and and by sewing sewing a small small piece piece of of elastic elastic across across the the midmidsection section of of the collar collar to pull pull the sides sides of the the collar collar together. The The elastic elastic accommodated accommodated the the growth growth together. of of the the calf. A small, small, less conspicuous, conspicuous, and and better better fitting fitting collar collar was required required for our our work work with elk calves in northcentral northcentral Colorado. Colorado. This This paper paper recalves ports on the the development development of of that that collar. collar. ports linen fire hose hose in construction construction of of We used linen our our collar collar because because it was light-weight, light-weight, durable, durable, and and provided provided protection protection for the the antenna. antenna. Lengths Lengths of of 5-cm wide wide hose hose were cut cut 66 cm long and and the ends were connected connected by either either sewing sewing on two ends strips strips of of 2.5-cm 2.5-cm wide wide elastic elastic or by sewing one one 5.0-cm 5.0-cm wide wide strip strip to form a collar collar approximately approximately 25.4 25.4 cm in ruameter diameter (Fig. I). 1). The The transmitter transmitter was attached attached to the the collar collar with with pop pop rivets rivets and and the the antenna tenna placed placed inside inside the the hose (Figs. 22 and and 3). 3). Next Next the the collar collar was reduced reduced in size by folding folding it back back on itself itself forming forming a loop approximately approximately IO 10 cm hold the the loop loop in place, place, a smalJ small long (Fig. 3). To hold (0.6-cm (0.6-cm wide) wide) strip strip of of elastic elastic was sewn between between the the apex apex of of the the loop and and the collar collar and and another another 1lContributioll Co111rib111io11 from from Federal Federal Aid Aid Pmjecl Project W-126-R. W-126-R. elastic between the base of elastic stri1p strip was sewn between the base of the the loop narrow elastic loop and and the the collar. collar. These These narrow elastic strips strips were very expandable, were approximately approximately 5 cm cm long, very expandable, and and separnted separated quite quite easily easily after after weathering weathering for approxima1tely months, A single wrap of approximately 2 months. single wrap of electrielectrithe loop cal tape tape was placed placed around around the loop and and co11ar collar to maintain maintain its form form until until it was was placed placed on the the ananimal the size of the loop, imal (Fig. 4). Depending Depending on on the of the loop, the was 14 to ruamethe completed completed collar collar was to 18 cm cm in diameter. A collar collar with with a djameter diameter of of 14 cm cm provided provided a ter. head of snug snug fit when when slirung sliding it over over the the head of a 1- to to 2-day-old 2-day-old e:lk elk calf; whereas, whereas, a collar collar with with a diamediameter better for fitting ter of of 18 cm was better fitting over over the the head head of of a 4- to 6,-week-old 6-week-old calf. This collar collar proved to be a very very effective effective This proved to means of of attaching attaching telemetry transmitters to elk means telemetry transmitters calves. calves. ColUars Collars fit young young animals animals very well and and expanded expanded in 3-6 months months when when the the calves calves grew grew into them. them. The The collars collars were were quite quite durable durable and and into not but were were readily not overly overly conspicuous, conspicuous, but readily detected detected by an observer observer looking looking for them. them. Total Total cost cost of of materials materials for each each collar collar was about about $1.25, $1.25, and and $227.00 fo:r for the transmitter. $227.00 the transmitter. In our our study study it was was desirable desirable for for collars collars to to In remain the animals 12 remain om on the animals for approximately approximately months. months. A total total of of 70 calves calves were were marked marked with with this this collar collar design. design. Two Two collars collars (2.9%) expanded expanded prematurely month) and prematurely (approx. (approx. I1 month) and slipped slipped off off the 11.4%) the heads heads of of the the calves. calves. Eight Eight collars collars ((11.4%) remained until they they were were approxiremained on on the the animals animals until approximately the remaining mately 18 months months old, old, while while the remaining 60 collars (85.7%) (85.7%) remained remained on on the the calves calves for apcollars proximately proximately 9-12 months. months. Most Most of of the the elk lost their wire fences the winter their collars collars in barbed barbed wire fences on the winter range trees when when shedding range or by rubbing rubbing them them on trees shedding hair in in th,e the spring. spring. Lost Lost collars collars were were easily easily rehair rebuilrung and trieved trieved foir for rebuilding and future future use. If If it is desirable desirable for collars collars to remain remain on on the the elk for longer Lhe two two 2.5-cm longer than than 12 12 months, months, the 2.5-cm elastic elastic strips at the the ends ends of of the the collar collar can be replaced be replaced strips with more more durable durable material. material. �Fig. Fig. 1. 1. Fire Fire hose hose is is connected connected with with elastic elastic to form form aa collar. collar. of Fig. 3. 3. A loop loop is formed formed in in the collar collar and small small pieces pieces of elastic elastic are attached attached at points points A and B. B. An11enna Antenna is inserted inserted at at point point C. Fig. Fig. 2. The The transmitter transmitter is is attached attached to the the collar collar with pop pop rivets. rivets. completed collar. collar. Fig. 4. The completed George Bear George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher Researcher Wildliife April April 1986 �Ouidoor Fac;,ts FSQts Outdoor PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF WILDLIFE DIVI ION OF WILDLIFE d .- , I\~ it. '.' ,... / ;~ .., ~~ ~~ -.( Number 113 Number Game Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Game ESTABLISHING SWITCHGRASS FOR WILDLIFE ESTABLISHING WILDLIFE l1 COLORADO IN EASTERN COLORAD0 (Panicum virgatum) virgatum) has high cover Switchgrass (Panicum 1967, George George value for wildlife (Myers and McPherron McPherron 1967, It has a tall, vigorous growth form that that et al. 1978). It remains standing standing through remains through the winter. This provides protective cover for loafmg night-roosting, escape protective loafing and night-roosting, predators and blizzards, standing standing residual for early from predators concentrate wildlife to spring nesting, and helps concentrate improve hunting bunting opportunity opportunity (Fig. 1). Other Other perennial perennial cool-season species, break grasses, especially cool-season break down and under drifting winter winter snows and, thus, do not propromat under vide the cover values of switchgrass. In Iowa, ringpheasant (Phasianus (Phasianus colchicus) colchicus) nest densities necked pheasant in switchgrass averaged averaged 68.4 68.4/100 /100 ha, exceeding densities alfalfa/orchardgrass (Dactylis (Dactylis glomerglomerof 39.8/100 ha in alfalfa/orchard.grass ata) (George (Colinus ata) (George et al. 1978). Northern Northern bobwhite bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), mourning (Zenaida macroura), mourning doves (Zenaida macroura), and virginianus), passerine birds several species of passerine birds also nested nested in the Other wildlife known to readily use Iowa plantings. Other switchgrass for nesting concealment include and/or concealment nesting and/or prairie grouse grouse (Tympanuchus (Tympanuchus spp.), several species of prairie (Anatinae), and deer (Odocoileus spp.). deer (Odocoileus ducks (Anatinae), Some grass species -- side oats grama grama (Bouteloua (Bouteloua curlipendula), smooth brome (Bromus inennis), curtipendula), smooth brome (Bromus inermis), and crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) cristatum) recommended recommended crested wheatgrass (Agropyron for use in eastern eastern Colorado Colorado -- possess growth forms and height-density height-density characteristics characteristics less valuable for wildlife. concealment for wildlife. They do not provide sufficient concealment nesting pheasants and grouse. Taller species, if planted planted nesting pheasants Taller sparsely, usually provide the best best wildlife cover. However, tall warm-season warm-season grasses (switchgrass, bluestems bluestems (Andropogon spp.), yellow Ind.iangrass Indiangrass [Sorghastrum [Sorghastrum [Andropogon spp.], nutans), etc.) are usually more establish than than nutansJ, more difficult to establish cool-season grasses (wbeatgrasses (wheatgrasses (Agropyron [Agropyron spp.], cool-season smooth brome, smooth brome, etc.). warm-season rhizomatous rhizomatous Switchgrass is a tall, warm-season adapted to moist, deep, fertile soils (Duebbert grass adapted (Duebbert et al. 1981). In Colorado, switchgrass is best adapted adapted to ln Colorado, subirrigated wet meadow meadow sites or irrigated irrigated fields where subirrigated where it is relatively tolerant better tolerant of high alkalinity. It grows better in sandy soils, but but also grows well in the the loam soils of northeastern Colorado where northeastern Colorado where annual annual precipitation precipitation averages ~40 cm em (15 in.). Switchgrass use is questionable questionable under poor-soil conditions. conditions. under more more arid, poor-soil often grows grows In tall tall vigorous vigorous clumps clumps which which Fig. 1. Swltchgrass Swltchgrass often remain standing over winter. winter. remain standing over 1lContribution Project W-152-R. W-152-R. Contnoution from from Federal Federal Aid Aid Project FIELD TESTS FIELD TESTS The herbicide, atrazine, applied applied pre-emergent pre-emergent to The herbicide, atrazine, planting (Wilson 1970), was used in switchgrass field planting �lr.ials trials in 1980 1980 by the the Division Division of Wildlife in northeastern northeastern Colorado. It controlled controlled weeds and greatly greatly improved Colorado. establishment establishment and growth of switchgrass seedlings. stands were attained attained within 2 growing Tall, vigorous stands seasons. Where Where atrazine atrazine was not used, poorer poorer success occurred occurred and growth and establishment establishment were much 1985, numerous numerous switchgrass stands have slower. Since 1985, been been successfully established established on Division of Wild.lire Wildlife properties properties in northeastern northeastern Colorado Colorado (Fig. 2). (CRP) in eastern eastern Colorado Colorado by the Division of fields (CRP) shared to promote promote its use. SwitchWildlife which cost shared been planted planted in mixtures, often as only grass usually has been proportion of the total, as required required by U. S. a small proportion Department Department of Agriculture, Agriculture, Soil Conservation Conservation Service standards standards and specifications (U. S. Dcp. Dep. Agric. 1989). 1989). Preliminary results results (1989) indicated indicated switcbgrass switchgrass Preliminary possessed better better height-density quality than than other other grass species planted planted in in CRP CRP fields. fields. All evaluated plantings have been ungrazed ungrazed by livestock. ESTABLISHMENT PROCEDURES PROCEDURES ESTABLISHMENT Site Preparation Preparation Fig. 2. Swltchgrass Switchgrass provides provides cover cover for for wildlife wildlife under under adverse adverse weather weather conditions. conditions. Evaluations Evaluations of the cover quality of switchgrass compared compared to alfalfa, tame tame grass, native grass, wheat wheat stubble, and green green wheat were conducted conducted in 1986-87. 1986-87. Comparisons Comparisons were conducted conducted on randomly-selected randomly-selected tracts tracts distributed distributed primarily primarily in loam soil types in northeastern northeastern Colorado. Colorado. Most Most stands ·of of switchgrass 5-15 years old. Some contained contained lesser amounts amounts of were 5-15 other other warm-season warm-season native grasses. Height-density Height-density indices (HDI) (HDI) of visual obstruction obstruction (Robel (Robel et al. 1970) 1970) compare cover quality. The The HDI HDI values were used to compare for residual residual stands of switcbgrass switchgrass surpassed surpassed other other cover spring exemplifying its importance importance as types in early spring potential potential nesting nesting cover (Fig. 3). Switcbgrass Switchgrass was seeded seeded into several revegetation revegetation strips that that bad had been been disked, harrowed, harrowed, and treated treated with atrazine atrazine in early spring 1985. 1985. These These strips were were within Tamarack Prairie Prairie in eastern eastern sandy loam soils on the Tamarack Excellent stands stands were aUained attained within 2 Logan County. Excellent years. The The height-density height -density of standing standing residual measured sured in in early spring 1989 1989 demonstrated demonstrated the superior superior cover quality of switchgrass compared compared to to adjacent adjacent ungrazed ungrazed and grazed grazed native prairie prairie grasses (Fig. 4). Because of its cover values, switcbgrass switchgrass has been Because recommended recommended for planting planting in Conservation Conservation Reserve Reserve seedbed free of competitive vegetation vegetation is A firm seedbed or any grass prerequisite prerequisite to establishing establishing switcbgrass switchgrass ((or eastern Colorado. Colorado. Cultivation is necessary species) in eastern to remove preferably in early remove competing competing vegetation, vegetation, preferably ground has thawed thawed and is tillable. spring as soon as the ground settle and firm the the seed bed Rainfall, if received, will settle prior to planting. A spike-tooth spike-tooth barrow harrow will aid in soil firming and bring residual residual vegetation vegetation to the surface to reduce wind erosion. reduce 55 . . GREEN WHEAT--"':: WHEAT-:.' 4 , .." . " ----AlFALFA ",,' .,,, : .' :, :' :' ., a: ~ ~ 22 SWITCH GRASS GRASS -..... .~ ,,. --~·-=--·-·--~-=~·'·--·--·--, ~._..-#-~..--..- ..--.. "'~ ------~.~7· ..; l·• TAME TAME GRASS / .;• ~·,i /", ~~ ~( ✓-.•· ~ /·~ ~ ._,, .", •./. ~ ". NA _.~.""._._._.~tl'._._._GRASS ✓ ;" , " -.","" ,_. ~.~ .,:_,.- ~·-··~·~·-~·--··... .. ••••• • ..••• .", ,..' .," •·" NATIV GRASS ., WHEAT STUBBLE STUBBLE WHEAT 0o ..............__.............._..._..._.......__....._...__.___,_..._~ 33 99 15 15 21 21 27 33 99 15 15 21 21 27 22 88 14 14 APR MAY JUN APR MAY Progression of height-density height-cfenslty Index Index among among types types of of Fig. 3. Progression nesting nesting cover cover (1986-87), northeastern northeastern Colorado. Colorado. �Use of of herbicides herbicides permits permits no-till no-till planting planting of switchgrass directly into sorghum, sorghum, millet, or corn com stubble. be stubble. Gilyphosate Glyphosate (Roundup® (Roundup®)) herbicide herbicide can be applied to kill existing annual plantannual vegetation vegetation before before planting. The high rates rates of application application and timing timing required required where perenniaJs make use of Roundup® Roundup® impractical impractical where perennials wheat and other are involvedl involved. The The stubble stubble of of winter wheat other be removed removed prior small grains, grains is allelopathic allelopathic and must be prior to planting switchgrass and other warm-season species other warm-season (U. S. Dep. Agric. 1989). Therefore planting in Therefore no-till planting wheat stubble not practical. stubble is not practical. 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 E E 3.s 3.5 :g. :!!. 3.0 3.0 ~ ~ enZ 2.5 zUJ w CJ) 2.5 0Cl 2.0 ~~ 1.5 <.!) I c:> [j W "1.0 :I: J: 1.0 0.5 0.5 0o GRAZED GRAZED BURNED BURNED UNGRAZED UNGRAZED SWITCHGRASS fig. Fig. 4. Height-density Height-density Index index of of residual residual grass-forb grass-forb vegetation vegetation among native among grazed, grazed, ungrazed, ungrazed, and and prescribed-burned prescribed-burned native grasses grasses and and revegetated revegetated swltchgrass, switchgrass, Tamarack Tamarack Prairie, Prairie, early early spring spring 1989. 1989. Gardner, Division of Wildlife technician, M. J. Gardner, tilled each strip twice with a tandem tandem disk to remove most existing native native grasses prior prior to planting planting switchswitchgrass within the Tamarack Tamarack Prairie. Prairie. This This treatment treatment did not remove remove deep-rooted deep-rooted grasses, e. g., prairie prairie sandreed sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), longifolia), but eliminated eliminated shaJlow-rooted shallow-rooted (Calamovilfa grasses. Plowing with a mold-board mold-board plow followed by by needed to remove deep-rooted deep-rooted disking would be needed grasses. Disking, Disking, followed by harrowing, was conducted grasses. ground was tillable in early spring. spring. as soon as the ground Strips Strips (20-40 (20-40 m wide) were disked perpendicular perpendicular to the prevailing wind to reduce reduce susceptibility to erosion. Herbicides Herbicides Atrazine was applied at 0.84 kg/ha kg/ha (0.75 lbs/ac) lbs/ac) Atrazine on sandy loam soils following tillage; higher rates rates (1.12 [1.12 kg/ha kg/ha (1.0 lbs/ac)] lbs/ac») have been been used on on loam soils. soils. Higher Higher rates rates could be used in problem problem weed sites sites deep, loam or clay-loam soils with high where moist, where deep, organic matter matter occurred. occurred. Atrazine Atrazine can be reapplied reapplied the continue weed suppression. suppression. The herbicide, 2nd year to continue chlorsulfuron (Glean® (Glean®), ), (used extensively on CRP fields chlorsulfuron in eastern eastern Colorado) Colorado) can be substituted sUQstituted for atrazine, atrazine, switchgrass is planted planted in in mixtures with especially if switchgrass warm-season grasses or wheatgrasses. wheatgrasses. Atrazine Atrazine is more more warm-season economical economical to apply, but but switchgrass and bluestems bluestems are tolerant perennials. perennials. These pre-emergent pre-emergent about the only tolerant herbicides should should be be soil incorporated incorporated with a spikeherbicides tooth harrow harrow when possible (rainfall will help soil tooth incorporation). Label Label instructions instructions should should be closely incorporation). followed when applying herbicides. When When to Plant Plant April is month for planting is the the preferred preferred month planting switchgrass. Planting Planting can be be extended extended into mid May in northnortheastern eastern CoLorado Colorado with no significant problems. problems. In notill situations, planting can be situations, planting be extended extended from November November wiinter, but minor through through winter, but minor seed seed deterioration deterioration is probable. probable. Plant How to Plant Switchgrass seed is small and should be be seeded seeded using an alfalfa seed attachment attachment and double-disk double-disk furrow openers openers with depth depth bands. bands. Seed placement placement should be be 1.27 cm (0.5 in.) in loam loam soils and slightly deeper deeper about 1Il in sandy sandy arc~as. areas. Rubber in Rubber packer packer wheels behind behind the the drill are recomniended. recommended. A row spacing of 17.8-203 17.8-20.3 cm (78 in.) in.) is be:st, best, but but when a herbicide herbicide is used, a wider spacing of 305-40.67 30.5-40.67 cm (12-16 in.) may be be better better for 4 wildlife plantings. A seeding seeding rate rate of 45 4.5 kg/ha kg/ha ((4 lbs/ac) is usually recommended. However, with good lbs/ac) recommended. However, moisture conditions, a firm seed bed, presoil moisture bed, use of a preemergent llierbicide, herbicide, wider row spacing, and good emergent wider row potentially be planting eqniipmen~ equipment, this seeding seeding rate rate can potentially be reduced reduced to 2.2-3.4 kg/ha kg/ha (2-3 lbs/ac). lbs/ac). In recent recent years stands on Division of Wildlife properties properties were too a few stands dense. For For wildlife plantings, moderately sparse stands stands moderately sparse dense. that attain good height height and vigor are preferable to are preferable stunted stands. dense, stunted CONSIDERATIONS CONSIDERATIONS IN IN WILDLIFE WILDLIFE PLANTIN[GS PLANTINGS continuous monotypes monotypes of switcbgrass, switchgrass, other other Large continuous other vegetation vegetation are are usually not optimum for not optimum grasses, or 1other wildlife. A 16.2-ha (40 ac) tract tract is probably wildlife. probably maximum size, size, preferably preferably in a rectangular rectangular design to increase increase edge. Relatively wide strips (50-100 (SO-loo m) of switchgrass can be be interspersed interspersed with narrower narrower strips strips of alfalfa, food-cover �, strips (forage sorghum-grain sorghum-grain sorghum mixes, etc.), and region. USDI, Fish Fish and Wildl. Serv. Servo Spec. Sci. combinations of cover weed strips to provide excellent combinations Rep.--Wildl. 234. 21pp. pheasants. Narrow Narrow (4 m) fallow strips should borborfor pheasants. der grass plots. Switchgrass can be mixed with other other warm-season grasses and alternated alternated with narrow narrow tall, warm-season prairie grouse. alfalfa-clover strips for prairie MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE TREATMENTS TREATMENTS Deep chiseling in early spring when soil is moist Deep stands of any grass, and mellow should be used to thin stands including switcbgrass. switchgrass. Fireguards Fireguards can be disked around around the tract tract and residual residual vegetation vegetation can be be burned burned prior prior to chiseling. Shallow disking can also be used after chiseling to help help thin the the stand if necessary. Atrazine Atrazine or chlorsulfuron chlorsulfuron may be used to reduce reduce weed competition. Switchgrass and blne&tems bluestems respond respond better better than other other grasses to fire management management in eastern eastern Colorado. Colorado. These These maintenance maintenance treatments treatments are are recommended recommended in preference preference to grazing by livestock on wildlife plantings and need need not be be repeated repeated more more often than 5-10 years years... George, George, R. R., A A. L. Farris, Farris, C. C. Schwartz, D. D. Humburg, Humburg, and J.C. J. C. Coffey. 1978. 1978. Native Native prairie prairie pastures as nesting habitat habitat for bobwhite bobwhite quail grass pastures and ring-necked Iowa Conserv. ring-necked pheasants. pheasants. Comm., Wildt. Wildl. Res. Bull. 21. 21. 14pp. Myers, R. E., and E. L. McPherron. McPherron. 1967. 1967. How to plant and maintain maintain switchgrass as winter cover for wildlife. USDA, Soil Conserv. Serv. Servo lnfor. Infor. Sheet NY 63. Apr:7. Robe~ Robel, R. J., J., J. N. Briggs, A. D. Dayton, and L. C. Hulbert. 1970. Hulbert. 1970. Relationship Relationship between between visual obstruction obstruction measurements measurements and weight of grassland grassland vegetation. vegetation. J. Range Manage. Manage. 23:295-297. 23:295-297. U.S. U. S. Department Department of Agriculture. Agriculture. 1989. 1989. Standards Standards and specifications: specmcations: range range seeding seeding (acre) 550. 550. Tech. Servo Guide. Section IV. USDA, Soil Conserv. Serv. Area Area 2, 2, Greeley, CO. 27pp. Wilson, J. 1970. 1970. How to get a good stand stand of grass in Nebraska. Nebraska. Wilson Seed Farms, Farms, Polk, NE. 6pp. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Duebbert, Duebbert, H. F., E. E. T. Jacobson, Jacobson, K. F. Higgins, and E. B. Podoll. 1981. 1981. Establishment Establishment of seeded grasshabitat in the prairie prairie pothole pothole lands for wildlife habitat Warren 0. D. Snyder War1en Wildlife Researcher Researcher June June 1990 �Ou PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES DEPARTMENT DIVISION OF OF WILDLIFE DIVISION WILDLIFE A , if , ' '. , !\~ .' ,. ~ Number 114 Number 114 Wildlife Information Information Leaflet Wildlife Leaflet BOTrLE-RAISING CAPTIVITY!1 BOTrLE-RAISING WILD RUMINANTS RUMINANTS IN CAPTIVITY latter protocols at natural natural rates, rates, the the procelatter protocols grow grow at procedures for mixing mixing and calculating volumes dures for and calculating volumes to be fed can prove prove burdensome. burdensome. can Growth rates approaching those observed observed in Growth rates approaching those dam-raised neonates neonates have have also also been been achieved achieved in dam-raised in white-tailed deer deer fawns fawns (0. (0. virginianus) virginianus) (Silver (Silver white-tailed Pekins and and Mautz Mautz 1985), elk bighorn 1961, Pekins elk calves, bighorn lambs, and and pronghorn pronghorn fawns fawns (Wild (Wild et lambs, et al. 1991) by feeding evaporated milk. milk. We have have raised raised feeding undiluted undiluted evaporated over 40 wild wild neonates neonates using using this this protocol and have have protocol and over incurred no mortalities mortalities associated associated with with gastrogastroincurred intestinal disturbance diet. intestinal disturbance or or diet. feeding neonatal neonatal ungulates ungulates > 2 We recommend recommend feeding days unrestricted quantities undiluted evaporevapordays old unrestricted quantities of undiluted ated at each each feeding. feeding. Neonates libitum milk22 at Neonates fed ad libitum ated milk evaporated milk will regulate their their own own intake intake and and evaporated milk will regulate not overeat. overeat. Data Data in Table 1 offer general general in Table will not guidelines expected milk milk consumption consumption and and guidelines for expected animal weight. animal weight. Neonates should have have access access to alfalfa alfalfa hay, Neonates should concentrated feed (such (such as Calf CalfManna$), mineralconcentrated Mannas), a mineralsalt block, fresh water, and if possible, possible, fresh fresh water, and ized salt block, fresh native vegetation vegetation at times. In addition, addition, neonates neonates at all times. native commonly ingest ingest soil, and and should have access access to soil commonly should have that is not not grossly grossly contaminated contaminated with with fecal material. that material. Wild ungulates ungulates are are frequently bottle-raised to Wild frequently bottle-raised enhance survival survival of "orphaned" "orphaned" neonates and/or to enhance neonates and/or provide animals for exhibit exhibit or research. research. tractable animals provide tractable husbandry techniques, techniques, an an appropriate appropriate Good animal animal husbandly and patience patience and and caring caring are are essential proessential for prodiet, and perly bottle-raising bottle-raising wild wild neonates. neonates. The The success success of perly any protocol protocol for bottle-raising bottle-raising wild wild ungulates any ungulates should should evaluated on its its ability ability to to humanely humanely bring bring be evaluated healthy neonates neonates to weaning weaning at growth rates rates approxapproxat growth healthy imating those those of their their dam-raised dam-raised counterparts. imating counterparts. Here, we we describe describe procedures procedures developed at the the developed at Here, Colorado Division Division of Wildlife's Wildlife's Foothills Foothills Wildlife Wildlife Colorado Research Facility to successfully bottle-raise neoResearch Facility successfully bottle-raise natal elk (Ceruus (Cervus elaphus elaphus nelsoni), bighorn sheep sheep natal nelsoni), bighorn canadensis canadensis), canadensis), pronghorn antelope (Ovis canadensis pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) americana) (Wild et al. 1991), and and mule mule (Antilocapra deer (Odocoileus (Odocoileus hemionus). Included are are recomrecomdeer hemionus). Included mendations on on diet and feeding feeding protocols diet and protocols as well as mendations medical management management for captive captive neonatal neonatal ungulates. medical ungulates. FEEDING AND HUSBANDRY HUSBANDRY FEEDING AND Diet Diet A variety variety of protocols wild protocols for bottle-raising bottle-raising wild ungulates have have been been reported. reported. These These differ differ primarprimarungulates composition and volume of milk milk formulas formulas fed. fed. ily in composition and volume The most most widely recommended diets The widely recommended diets consist consist prepredominantly homogenized cow's cow's or goat's goat's milk, dominantly of homogenized and are are strictly strictly limited limited in in volume fed (Buckland (Buckland et volume f.ed and Schwartz et al. 1976, Hobbs Hobbs and and Baker Baker al. 1975, Schwartz Neil et et al. 1979, Brinkley Brinkley 1987). In our our experexper1979, Neil ience, such such protocols protocols commonly commonly lead lead to malnutrition, malnutrition, ience, manifested in gastrointestinal disturbances (e.g., manifested gastrointestinal disturbances diarrhea) and/or and/or suboptimal suboptimal growth growth rates rates in wild wild diarrhea) neonates. Other Other protocols protocols have have used used diets diets mixed mixed to neonates. simulate dam's dam's milk milk and volumes fed have have been simulate and volumes been determined using mathematical formulas determined using mathematical formulas (Robbins (Robbins Parker and and Wong Wong 1987 1987,1 Carl Carl and and ·eett al. 1981, Parker Robbins 1988). Although Although neonates neonates raised raised using using the the Robbins Schedule Schedule Initially, neonates should be be fed 5 times times daily daily Initially, neonates should (every 4 hours between 0600 and 2200). Once indi(every hours between 0600 and 2200). Once individuals accept the bottle, milk consumption usually viduals accept the bottle, milk consumption usually increases Soon thereafter, thereafter, most most neonates neonates increases rapidly. rapidly. Soon start refusing 1 feeding each day. When individuals When individuals start refusing feeding each skip daily for about days and and consecutive days skip a meal meal daily about 3 consecutive eat well otherwise, reduce frequency to 4 feedings feedings eat well otherwise, reduce frequency per day day spaced at about about 5-hour intervals. Using Using this this 5-hour intervals. per spaced at 1lSupersedes Div. Wild!. Wild!. Outdoor Facts No. Supersedes Colo. Colo. Div. No. 106. 2 2Bottle-raised Bottle-raised neonates should receive ad libitum first 24-48 hours after birth. birth .. milking bovine colostrum for 24-48 11 �Table Table 1. Consumption Consumption of undiluted undiluted evaporated evaporated milk milk and and weight weight ranges ranges of bottle-raised bottle-raised pronghorn, pronghorn, bighorn, bighorn, elk, and and mute mule deer. deer. AQe Age Species (Wk) (wk) Pronghorn 1 4 Elk 220-420 22(}42O 3.2-5.3 3.2-5.3 5,2-8.2 5.2-8.2 8.0-14.5 8.0-14.5 11.8-22.3 11.8-22.3 12 1 4 88 12 12 ~1030 840-1030 780-950 780-950 1190-1410< 1190-1410c 5.0 9.0-10.0 9.0-10.0 13.0-14.5 13.0-14.5 17.5-21.0 17.5-21.0 500-2380 500-2380 1990-3490 1990-3490 2660-4540 2660-4540 480-3060 480-3060 19.5-23.0 19.5-23.0 25.5-37.0 25.5-37.0 41.0-57.5 41.0-57.5 56.0-74.5 56.0-74.5 1 600 600 44 890-1100 890-1100 900-1250 900-1250 ndd ndd nd nd nd nd nd nd 1 4 8 12 12 Mule deer Weight (kg~ (kgb) 4()(}8()() 40CH300 ~1240 650-1240 7~1170c 740-1170c 8 Bighorn Bighorn sheep Total Total daily milk milk intake intake (ml•) (mI8) 8 12 460-580 460-580 430-580 430-580 t.ance tance of tlile the feeder feeder and and bottle. bottle. In general, general, time time to acceptanc,~ acceptance increases increases with with age, and and animals animals >2 weeks weeks old. old can be vezy very reluctant reluctant to feed from a bottle. Neonates Neonates purposefully purposefully separated separated from thethe dam for 1bottle-raising bottle-raising should should be taken taken at at 24-48 hours hours of age. At this this age neonates neonates have received adequate adequate 1oolostrum colostrum from the the dam, and and will quickly bottle and accept th4a! the bottle and imprint imprint on humans. humans. We recommend recommend involving involving only 11 or 2 feeders feeders per per individual neonate, neonate, particularly particularly until until they they fully accept bottle bottle feeding. Familiarity Familiarity with with individual individual feeders feeders appears appears to minimize minimize stress stress on neonates neonates and and maximize milk intake intake (Fig. 1). We h1:1.ve have used used 2 different different methods methods successfully for initiating initiating bottle bottle nursing nursing in healthy healthy neonates. neonates. One approach approach encourages encourages the the neonate neonate to eat eat while while restrained!, relies on the restrained, the the other other relies the neonate neonate initiating initiating feeding. patience and feeding. :Regardless Regardless of method method used, patience Using tenderness tenderness are are essential. essential. Using the the restraint restraint method, method, tll:ie the neonate neonate is held, cornered, cornered, or approachapproached when when in in hiding hiding posture posture and and the the nipple nipple is placed in its mouith. mouth. Sucking Sucking can be stimulated stimulated by moving the and forth, twirling it slightly the nippfo nipple back and forth, or twirling slightly to proper positioning. positioning. In addition, addition, the the jaws achieve p1:oper jaws or cheeks cait1 can be squeezed squeezed gently gently to stimulate stimulate sucking sucking swallowing. Only a small small amount amount of milk milk (« <5 5 and swalliowing. ml), if ality, into the any, should should be squeezed squeezed into the mouth. mouth. Stimulating Stimulating defecation defecation by wiping wiping the the perineal perineal area warm, damp (around (around the the anus anus and and vulva) with with a warm, paper towel or sponge often initiates initiates nursing nursing as paper well. The s1econd second technique technique relies on neonates neonates actively out the the nipple without without being being restrained. restrained. In seeking out this case, a feeder feeder imitates imitates behavior the dam dam to this behavior of the encouragEi encourage nursing. nursing. The The animal animal can be approached approached slowly, slowly, or enticed enticed to approach approach the the feeder feeder by by vocalizations izations from crouched crouched or kneeling kneeling position. Gently Gently stimulating defecation defecation often calms the the neonate, neonate, and and stimulating initiates oursing attempts. Neonates initiates 1nursing attempts. Neonates will often begin sucking sucking on the the feeder's feeder's hair hair or face first, then then the the nippfo nipple can be substituted. substituted. Using: Using either either method, method, if a feeding feeding attempt attempt fails the am.imal animal is in good health, health, we usually usually refrain refrain and the from ano1ther another attempt attempt for about about 4 hours. hours. Feeders Feeders must esponsive to must be flexible, innovative, innovative, and and rresponsive neonates' neonates' needs. needs. Intractable Intractable neonates neonates may may require require feeders 1:o to tzy try different different techniques, techniques, offer different different their approach nipple styles, and and occasionally alter alter their approach health concerns. based based on health If If a 111eonate neonate has not not begun begun to nurse nurse within within about about 2-4 days, or is in in poor health, health, special care may be necessary necessary and and animal animal health health must must be be monitored monitored closely. closely. If health health begins begins to deteriorate deteriorate or the the neonate nate begias begins to weaken, weaken, offering electrolyte electrolyte solution solution "28 828 ml ml == 11 ounce. b1 b1 kg kg = 2.2 lb. 0 CAd libitum feedings continued continued for a total of 16-20 weeks weeks for Ad libitum training purposes. dBody dBody weight weight of mule deer fawns not not determined. approach, total total daily daily milk consumption consumption will will not not approach, change change appreciably appreciably when when feeding frequency frequency is reduced. The same same criteria criteria can be used to to reduce reduce to 3, 3, then then 2 feedings per per day. By about about 10 weeks of age, neonates neonates need to be fed only once per per day. Weaning procedures are discussed below. Weaning procedures are discussed Equipment Equipment and Procedures Procedures Neonates Neonates of small small ruminant ruminant species (pronghorn (pronghorn and and deer) can be fed using using 8-ounce baby baby bottles. Nipple Nipple olJenings openings should should be enlarged enlarged slightly with with the the heated heated tip of a straightened straightened paper paper clip to ensure ensure proper proper milk flow. Soft Soft lamb nipples nipples ar1:l are used on 1arger larger capacity (500-2000 ml) plastic bottles bottles for larger ruminant ruminant species (e.g., bighorn bighorn lambs lambs and and elk larger calves). Calibrated Calibrated bottles bottles are are ideal for easy measurement of milk intake. intake. Milk should should be warmed warmed to surement about body body temperature temperature in a hot hot water water bath bath before about feeding. Bottles Bottles and and nipples nipples should should be rinsed rinsed with with warm warm water water after after each feeding, and washed washed with with thoroughly rinsed rinsed weekly. Total intake intake soap and thoroughly volume volume should should be recorded recorded for each feeding and summed daily. summed Starting Starting a young young neonate neonate nursing nursing from a bottle bottle can be challenging. challenging. Species, age, and individual's individual's temperament all contribute contribute to accepcondition and temperament 2 �libitum evaporated evaporated milk milk will continuously continuously increase increase milk intakie intake if allowed. Milk intake intake should be limited limited at 6-8 weeks weeks of age to begin begin a gradual gradual weaning weaning process. Initially, milk intake intake should should only be stabilized stabilized and and daily consumption consumption not not allowed to increase volumes observed during increase over volumes during the the final week When the week of fre, freee choice feeding. When the neonate neonate has adjusted adjusted to to limited limited feeding, vo1ume volume offered can be further further restricted. restricted. Weaning Weaning should should be completed by about months of age. Forced-weaning about 3 to 3.5 months Forced-weaning is often traumatic young ungulates traumatic for young ungulates as evidenced by pacing, vocalization, and and slight slight weight weight loss. Generous amounts amounts of dry feeds and fresh fresh water water should should be be available to, to weaned weaned neonates. neonates. (see below) in the the bottle bottle and/or and/or a bowl is beneficial. We use force-feeding only as a last last resort. resort. Each feeding session should still be started started with attempts attempts to bottle bottle nurse. nurse. Failing Failing accept.a.nee acceptance of the bottle, a short short segment segment of rubber rubber tubing tubing can be attached attached to a dose syringe syringe and milk (or electro1yte electrolyte solution) slowly dripped dripped into the the corner corner of the the mouth. mouth. Swallowing Swallowing can be induced induced by gently stroking stroking the the throat throat in a downward downward motion. motion. Extreme Extreme care must must be taken taken to avoid aspiration aspiration of milk into the lungs lungs because eonates of because this this can lead to pneumonia. pneumonia. N Neonates small species should receive about about 300 ml per per day, larger larger species about about 1000 1000 ml per day via force feeding. Neonatal Neonatal ruminants ruminants should should not be fed milk via orogastric tube; tube; however, electrolyte solution can be administered administered in this this way if required. required. Defecation and urination urination should should be stimulated stimulated at evecy every feeding for about about the the first first month. This activity is important important in order order to establish establish bonding bonding with with the feeder, avoid constipation constipation and allow for frequent frequent evaluation evaluation of fecal consistency. Overstimulation, stimulation, as evidenced by straining straining without without defecation, should be avoided. to Housing Housing Outsid1a pens with Outside stalls stalls or small small pens with shelters shelters and and clean soil floors that that are are isolated from domestic animals animals arc~ are ideal for housing housing wild neonatal neonatal unguungulates. Acceiss Access to warmth warmth from a heat heat lamp lamp should should be available during during cool cool or damp damp weather. weather. Initially, neonates neonates should should be housed housed individually. Neonates Neonates ~2 that are ~2 weeks of age that are well-accustomed well-accustomed to bottlebottlenursing nursing and the the feeder can be grouped grouped with with others others of the the samE! same species for part part or all of the the day day as long as all in in th1e the group group appear appear healthy. healthy. HEALTH CARE CARE AND AND MONITORING MONITORING HEALTH Evaluation Evaluaticon Proper diet, good sanitation sanitation and and husbandcy husbandry Proper feeders are practices, a:nd and keen keen observational observational skills of offeeders essential components components for rearing rearing healthy healthy neonates. neonates. Treatment problems can usually Treatment of minor minor health health problems usually be performed veterinary supervision,. performed by feeders under under veterinary supervision, but unresponsive or more severe conditions but unresponsive more severe conditions should should examined promptly promptly by a veterinarian. veterinarian. be ex:amimid Overalll Overall health health of neonates neonates can be assessed assessed using using simple techniques. techniques. Health Health assessments assessments should should be performed performed upon upon receipt receipt of new animals animals and and at at frequent quent intervals intervals on all neonates neonates in order order to appreciate normal normal conditions conditions and to recognize early signs of problems. problems. The The skin, eyes, nose, mouth, mouth, ears, umbilicus, and and limbs limbs should should be inspected inspected for signs of trauma trauma 1or or disease. In newborn newborn (« <24 24 hours hours old) ungulates, the umbilicus umbilicus may still be moist and ungulates, the should be dipped in tincture tincture of iodine; a veterinarian veterinarian should be ,consulted the umbilicus umbilicus does not dry consulted if the within within 24 24 hours, hours, or if pus pus or urine urine are are noticed coming from Attitude can be assessed from it. Attitude assessed based based on overall appearance, appearance, activity level, posture, posture, and and appetite. appetite. Hydration status is assessed Hydration 1status assessed by pinching pinching up a fold of Rg. Fig. 1. 1. Author bottle-feeding 4-week-old 4-week-old elk calf. (Photo (Photo by by M. M. W. Miller) Miller) Weaning Weaning Bottle-raised animals animals occasionally wean themthemBottle-raised selves voluntarily, voluntarily, but but forced-weaning forced-weaning is usually usually required. required. Individual Individual response, as well as intended intended use of the the animal, animal, may influence influence weaning weaning procereward in dures. In some cases, milk is used as a reward training programs programs and may be continued continued for months months training regular weaning weaning dates. In most cases, howbeyond regular ever, prompt prompt weaning weaning is desirable. Neonates Neonates often decreasing milk and increasing increasing dry feed intake intake begin decreasing by 8 wks of age; however, some animals fed ad by 8 of a g e; h o we ve r , some animals fed 33 �Table Table 2. Recipe for a homemade electrolyte solution (Lewis (Lewis and and Phillips 1979). 1979). skin skin over over the the shoulders, shoulders, then then watching watching its its return return to normal position; in dehydrated individuals, normal position; dehydrated individuals, the the skin skin loses elasticity elasticity and and the the fold returns returns to normal normal more more slowly slowly than than in well hydrated hydrated animals. animals. CharacterCharacteristics istics of feces (consistency, (consistency, appearance, appearance, odor) should should be noted noted at at each each feeding. feeding. We also recommend recommend measuring measuring body body weights weights on bottle-raised bottle-raised neonates neonates at at least least weekly; weekly; this this is an an excellent excellent method method for monimonitoring toring condition condition and and overall overall health. health. Rectal Rectal body body temperature temperature is normally normally about about 100.5-103°F 100.5-103°F and and can can indicate indicate illness illness if if outside outside this this range. range. Body tempertemperature ature should should be taken taken during during the the morning morning or evening ing when when the the animal animal is at at rest; rest; excitation excitation and and hot hot weather weather can elevate elevate the the temperature temperature quickly. 11 package (1.75 (1.75 ounce) fruit pectin 2 teaspoons lite salt 10.5-ounce 1D.5-ounce can beef consomme Warm water to make 2 quarts 2 teaspoons baking soda Refrigerate Refrigerate until use. Discard Discard un1used unused portion after 2 days. Combine: Combine: milk milk with with electrolyte electrolyte solution solution or or water, water, as this this can can prolong prolong diarrhea diarrhea (Fettman (Fettman et et al. 1986). If If diarrhea diarrhea persists persists beyond beyond this this 24-48 24-48 hour hour perperiod iod a vetarinarian veterinarian should should be be consulted. consulted. A fecal sample to a diagsample should should be be collected collected and and submitted submitted to nostic bacterial culture nostic laboratory laboratory for for bacterial culture and and antibiotic antibiotic 3 sensitivity, sensitivity, and and screening screening for viruses viruses and and parasites. parasites.3 Regular Regular foedings feedings with with electrolyte electrolyte solution solution should should be continued continued and and about about 20-50 20-50 ml bismuth bismuth subsalicylate sub salicylate (e.g., Pepto-bismol8) administered orally Pepto-bismoIGl1)administered orally 2-4 times times per Antibiotics can by a veterper day. Antibiotics can be be prescribed prescribed by veterinarian, inarian, but but should should be reserved reserved for treating treating confirmed baderial bacterial infections infections or or systemically systemically ill neofirmed nates. Oral Oral administration administration of some some antibiotics, antibiotics, such such nates. chloramphenicol, neomycin, neomycin, ampicillin, ampicillin, and and tetratetraas chloramphenicol, cycline, can can induce induce diarrhea diarrhea in in healthy healthy domestic domestic calves (Rollin (Rollin et et al. 1986) and and should should be be avoided avoided in wild Oral wild neonates neonates with with diarrhea. diarrhea. Oral or or injectable injectable the drug trimethop1 rim-sulfa is the trimethoprim-sulfa drug of choice choice for suscepsusceptible bactEirial bacterial infections. infections. It It is safe safe and and efficacious efficacious at at tible recommended dosages dosages of 33 mg/kg mgjkg of drug drug combinacombinarecommended tion tion orally, orally, or I ml of injectable injectable 24% suspension suspension per per 10 kg subcutaneously, subcutaneously, given given twice twice a day_ day. Drugs that alter gut gut motility, motility, particularly particularly those those Drugs that alter that decrease decrease it it (parasympatholytic (parasympatholytic agents agents such such as as that atropine amd and scopolamine), scopolamine), can can e:xacerbate exacerbate diarrhea diarrhea atropine and be avoided. and should should be avoided. If If gut gut microflora microflora have have been been altered altered or eliminated eliminated by by prolonged prolonged diarrhea diarrhea or antiantibiotic therapy, therapy, plain plain yogurt (with active active cultures) cultures) biotic yogurt (with can be added added to to evaporated evaporated milk, milk, or commercial commercial proproducts suclll such as Probios8 ProbiosGl1used used in in an an attempt attempt to reesducts reestablish normal normal flora. As an an alternative, alternative, we we have have tablish occasionallly pellets from occasionally fed a few normal normal fecal pellets from a healthy, umaffected unaffected neonate neonate of the the same same species species to a healthy, sick individual individual to to promote promote reestablishment reestablishment of nornorthe gut. mal flora in in the gut. Diarrhea Diarrhea Fortunately, Fortunately, many many gastrointestinal gastrointestinal disturbances disturbances associated associated with with dilute dilute milk milk formulas formulas can can be be avoided avoided using using the the diet diet recommended recommended here. here. However, However, diardiarrhea rhea still occurs occurs occasionally occasionally in debilitated debilitated animals animals or with Normal with inadequate inadequate sanitation. sanitation. Normal neonatal neonatal stools stools range range from from soft, yogurt yogurt consistency consistency to formed formed pellets. Stools Stools are are usually usually gold gold colored colored when when anipellets. mals are are on a strictly strictly milk milk diet diet but but are are darker darker green green mals vegetation intake intake increases. increases. Normal Normal stools stools are are as vegetation not not particularly particularly foul-smelling. foul-smelling. Diarrhea Diarrhea is characcharacterized terized by fluid stools, often often having having a foul odor odor and/or and/or abnormal abnormal color, sometimes sometimes with with presence presence of blood, excessive excessive mucus mucus and/or and/or gas bubbles. bubbles. Neonates with with diarrhea diarrhea are are often often depressed depressed and and have have nates lower lower milk milk intakes. intakes. Animals Animals with with diarrhea diarrhea should should be isolated isolated and and caretakers should should follow good sanitation sanitation procedures procedures caretakers (e.g., wearing wearing protective protective clothing, clothing, disinfecting disinfecting hands hands and shoe shoe soles after after contact, contact, using using a separate separate bottle bottle and and and nipple). nipple). Neonates Neonates and and their their bedding bedding must must be kept kept as clean clean as JlOssible. possible. Fly repellent, repellent, such such as Cutter KRS•, KRSGl1, can be used used on the the animal animal as needed. needed. Cutter can As an initial initial treatment, treatment, discontinue discontinue milk and and substisubstitute tute an an electrolyte electrolyte solution solution on the the same same feeding feeding schedule for 24-48 24-48 hours. hours. Revive& ReviveGl1 and Biolyte8 BiolyteGl1 are schedule and are the the most most efficacious efficacious electrolyte electrolyte products products for domestic domestic calves (Fettman (Fettman et al. 1986). If If these these cannot cannot be be obtained, obtained, a homemade homemade solution solution can be mixed mixed (Lewis (Lewis and Phillips Phillips 1979; Table Table 2). We have have used used these these and commercial commercial and and homemade homemade formulations formulations successsuccessfully in tl"eating treating wild neonates. neonates. Products Products containing containing table sugar, table sugar, or sucrose, sucrose, should should never never be adminisadministered. A bowl bowl of electrolyte electrolyte solution solution can can also be tered. made made available available in addition addition to water water for free choice consumption. our experience, experience, most most neonates neonates In our consumption. respond with with firmer firmer stools stools in 24-48 hours. hours. At that that respond time, time, return return to feeding feeding undiluted undiluted milk; milk; do not not mix 3 If laboratory work is not possible, 3Iflaboratory possible, a screening test test using litmus pap,er paper to check fecal pH may be useful. useful. Normally, fecal fecal pH i:s is neutral neutral (pH 6-7); 6-7); an acidic pH indicates a possible viral infection, while an alkaline alkaline pH is more indicative ,of of a bacterial bacterial infection. 4 �xylazine without 2-3 mgjkg xylazine with with or or without mg/kg ketamine ketamine IM. 1M. Yohimbine HCl can be used to reverse Yohimbine HCl can be used to reverse the the effect.s effects of xylazine xylazine at at ;11. a dosage dosage of 0.125 0.125 mg/kg. mg/kg. Other Other Conditions Conditions "Overeating "Overeating disease" disease" (enterotoxemia) (enterotoxemia) and and other other clostridial clostridial infections infections occur occur occasionally occasionally in bottlebottleraised raised ungulates, ungulates, but but these these problems problems are are readily readily prevented prevented by by proper proper vaccination. vaccination. We recommend recommend vaccinating vaccinating all neonates neonates with with multivalent multivalent Clostridium tridium spp. toxoid toxoid (e.g., 7-way 7-way clostridium clostridium vaccine) vaccine) upon upon arrival, arrival, 3 weeks weeks later later and and again again at at weaning. weaning. Use recommended recommended domestic domestic lamb lamb dosages dosages for deer, deer, bighorn, bighorn, and and pronghorn pronghorn neonates neonates and and domestic domestic calf dosages dosages for elk calves. Internal Internal and and external external parasites parasites occur occur frequently frequently in wild neonates. neonates. To prevent prevent illness illness in in neonates neonates or spread spread of parasites parasites to other other animals, animals, an an anthelmintic anthelmintic such such as ivermectin ivermectin can be administered administered at at cattle cattle dosages dosages to control control most most common common parasites. parasites. Pneumonia Pneumonia occurs occurs occasionally occasionally in in neonates, neonates, and and is usually usually caused caused by aspirating aspirating milk milk or other other feed into into the the lungs. lungs. Bighorn Bighorn lambs lambs also appear appear paiticuparticularly larly susceptible susceptible to pneumonia pneumonia unrelated unrelated to milk milk aspiration; aspiration; theirs theirs are are often often bacterial bacterial infections infections caused caused by by Pasteurella Pasteurella spp. spp. Clinical Clinical signs signs of pneupneumonia monia can include include depression, depression, loss of appetite, appetite, nasal nasal discharge, discharge, .coughing, coughing, and and elevated elevated body temperature. temperature. pneumonia is suspected, suspected, a veterinarian veterinarian should should be be If pneumonia consulted. Procaine Procaine penicillin penicillin G administered administered subsubconsulted. cutaneously at at 22,000 22,000 U U/kg daily is an an appropriate appropriate cutaneously /kg daily treatment treatment for aspiration aspiration pneumonia pneumonia. Pasteurellosis Pasteurellosis in bighorn bighorn lambs lambs may require require more more intensive intensive thertherapy (Wild and and Miller Miller 1991). 1991). Minor trauma, trauma, such such as abrasions, abrasions, can usually usually be Minor treated treated by washing washing with with an an antiseptic antiseptic solution solution or soap and and water, water, then then kept kept clean clean until until a scab forms. Antibiotics Antibiotics are are usually usually not not required required unless unless signs signs of infection infection are are present. present. If flies are are abundant, abundant, Cutter Cutter KRS* (or (or a comparable comparable product) product) can can be be applied applied KRS• directly to the the wound wound to prevent prevent or treat treat fly strike strike directly (myiasis). (myiasis). Severe Severe lacerations lacerations or fractures fractures should should be examined by a veterinarian veterinarian and and the the most most practical practical examined and humane humane action action taken. taken. Euthanasia Euthanasia is is an option option and that that should should be considered considered and and exercised exercised in cases of severe severe trauma trauma (or illness), illness), especially especially in recalcitrant recalcitrant individuals. individuals. Thorough examination examination of wild ungulates, ungulates, especThorough ially when when injured, injured, may may require require chemical chemical immobiliimmobilization by a veterinarian. veterinarian. Xylazine Xylazine HCI, HCl, alone alone or in zation combination combination with with ketamine ketamine HCI, HCl, is a useful useful sedative sedative when when administered administered intramuscularly intramuscularly (IM) (1M) or intraintravenously venously (IV). (IV). Sedative Sedative dosages dosages vary vary based based on indiindividual vidual and and degree degree of excitation, excitation, but but in general general can can be administered administered at at the the following following dosages dosages to young young wild rumiuaats: wild ruminants: about about 0.2-0.3 mgfkg mgjkg xylazine xylazine with with without 11 mgjkg mg/kg ketamine ketamine IV or 0.5-0.8 mgjkg mg/kg or without Castration Castration Bottle-raised Bottle-raised males males intended intended for use use in research, research, and and sometimes sometimes display, display, are are often often castrated castrated to reduce reduce aggression possibility of injury handlers or aggression and and possibility injury to to handlers other other anim~nls. animals. The The procedure procedure should should be be performed performed by a veterinarian veterinarian with with the the animal animal under under anesthesia. anesthesia. be performed the testicles testicles Castration Castration can can be performed as as soon soon as as the descend descend inito into the the scrotum scrotum (usually (usually by about about 2 months that months of age) using using a closed closed technique technique like like that used used in mal, malee llamas llamas or or stallions. stallions. TRANSPORTATION TRANSPORTATION Care be exercised Care miust must be exercised in in transporting transporting neonates neonates to avoid iaj'llry injury or or overheating. overheating. Clean Clean dog kennels kennels are are satisfact:ory satisfactory for young young or or small small neonates. neonates. Larger Larger boxes boxes with with adequate adequate ventilation ventilation or partially partially enclosed enclosed horse horse traile1rs trailers can also also be be used used for larger larger individuals. individuals. Sedation Sedation can can be be used used for for fractious fractious individuals. individuals. Unanesthetized Unanesthetized neonates neonates should should not not be hobbled hobbled or hog-tied du:ring during transport. hog-tied transport. PLACEMENT PLACEMENT discourage private citizens from from picking-up picking-up We discourage private citizens "abandoned" illegal for "abandoned" neonates; neonates; in Colorado, Colorado, it it is illegal private individuals individuals to to possess possess wild wild animals animals without without private proper proper penmits permits from from the the Division Division of Wildlife. Wildlife. NeoN eonatal natal deer, deer, Eilk, elk, moose, moose, and and pronghorn pronghorn are are frequently frequently left the dam left alone alone by the dam and and display display hiding hiding behavior behavior until until about about 2 weeks weeks of age (Fig. 2). This This is normal normal defensive behavior behavior and and these these animals animals are are not not in defensive However, danger danger if left left undisturbed. undisturbed. However, if if healthy, healthy, legitimately legitimately orphaned, orphaned, or or injured injured neonates neonates are are found, found, a representative representative from from the the Colorado Colorado Division Division of Wildlife Wildlife i;hould should be be notified notified immediately. immediately. Fig. Rg. 2. 2. Wild eJlk elk calf in hiding hiding posture. 5 �Parker, Parker, KL., K L., and and B. Wong. Wong. 1987. Raising Raising blackblackt.ailed tailed deer deer fawns fawns at at natural natural growth growth rates. rates. Can. J. Zool. 65:20-23. Pek.ins, Pekins, P P... J., and and W. W. Maut.z. Mautz. 1985. A new new fawn fawn Wlldl. Soc. Bull. feeding feeding schedule. schedule. Wildl. Bull. 13:174-176. Robbins, Robbins, C. T., R. S. Podbielancik-Norman, Podbielancik-Norman, D. L. Wilson, Wilson, and and E. C. Mould. Mould. 1.981. 1981. Growth Growth and and nutri,mt nutrient consumption consumption of elk calves calves compared compared to other J. Wildl. Manage. other ungulate ungulate species. species. Manage. 45:17:2-186. 45:172-186. Rollin, Rollin, R. E., K K N. Mero, Mero, P. B. Kozisek, Kozisek, and and R. W. Phillips. Phillips. 1986. Diarrhea Diarrhea and and malabsorption malabsorption in calves calves ass(.)Ciated associated with with therapeutic therapeutic doses doses of antibiiotics: antibiotics: absorptive absorptive and and clinical clinical changes. changes. Am. Am. J. J. Vet. Vet. Res. Res. 47:987-991. 47:987-991. Schwartz,. Schwartz, C. C., J. G. Nagy, Nagy, and and S. M. Kerr. Kerr. 1976, 1976. training pronghorns Rearing Rearing and and training pronghorns for ecologjcal ecological studic~s. WJldl. Manage. studies. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:464-468. 40:464-468. milk compared Silver, Silver, H. 1961. Deer Deer milk compared with with substisubstitute Wildl. Manage. tute tnilk milk for fawns. fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 25:66-70. 25:66-70. Wild, M. A., and and M. W. Miller. Miller. 1991. Detecting Detecting nonh,amolyticPasteurella nonhemolyticPasteurella haemolytica haemolytica infections infections healthy Rocky Rocky Mountain Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis (Ovis in healthy bighorn sheep can.adensis nsis): influences canadensis canade_ canadensis): influences of sample sample handling. J. Wildl. site and and handling. Wildl. Dis. 27:53-60. 27:53-60. Miller, D. L. Baker, Baker, R. B. Gill, Wild, M. A., M. W. Miller, N. T. Hobbs, Hobbs, and and B B.. .J. J. Maynard. Maynard. 1991. 1991. Combottleparison parison of growth growth rate rate and and milk milk intake intake of bottleraised raised and and dam-raised dam-raised bighorn bighorn sheep, sheep, prongpronghorn ant.elope antelope and and elk elk neonates. Can. J. Zool. horn neonates. Can. In review. review. In The The ultimate ultimate disposition disposition of a neonat:e neonate may may influinfluence ence some some aspects aspects of its husbandry. husbandry. If animals animals are are to be used used for display display or research, research, imprinting imprinting and and habituation habituation to humans humans is desirable. desirable. One exception exception to this this may may be imprinting imprinting int.a.ct intact males; males; they they often often become become aggressive aggressive toward toward humans humans after after reaching reaching sexual sexual maturity, maturity, particularly particularly during during the the rut. rut. If orphans orphans are are raised raised for release release at at weaning weaning (i.e., (Le., "rehabilitated"), "rehabilitated"), human human contact contact should should be minimized minimized to preclude Once preclude habituation. habituation. Once they they accept accept the the bottle, bottle, individuals individuals destined destined for release release should should be approached approached onlyforfeedings. only for feedings. Group Group housing housing should should also be employed employed to encourage encourage intraspecific intraspecific socialization. zation. However, However, because because it is difficult difficult to ensure ensure that that bottle-raised bottle-raised neonates neonates are are not not habituated habituated to humans, humans, we do not not recommend recommend their their release release back back to the the wild. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank thank Tom Tom Pojar, Pojar, Bruce Bruce Gill, Dan Dan Baker, Baker, Tom Tom Hobbs, Hobbs, Barb Barb Maynard, Maynard, and and David David Saltz Saltz for evaluation evaluation and and improvement improvement of this this feeding feeding techtechnique. nique. Tom Tom Pojar, Pojar, Tom Tom Remington, Remington, and and Bruce Bruce Gill provided provided useful useful comments comments o.n on an an early early draft draft of this this narrative. narrative. Nancy Nancy McEwen McEwen gave gave editorial editorial assistance. assistance. This work work was was supported supported by by Federal Federal Aid to Wildlife Wildlife This Restoration Restoration Projects Projects FW-26P FW-26P and and W-153-R-2,4. W-153-R-2,4. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Brinkley, Brinkley, K K 1987. 1987. Pronghorn Pronghorn hand-rearing hand-rearing protocol (Antilocapra (Antilocapra americana americana americana). americana). Zoo Keepers' Forum Forum 14(8):234-237. 14(8):234-237. Keepers' Buckland, Buckland, D. E., W. A. Abler Abler,1 R. L. L. Kirkpatrick, Kirkpatrick, and and Whelan. 1975. Improved Improved husbandcy husbandry sysJ. B. Whelan. tem for rearing rearing fawns fawns in captivity. captivity. .J. J. Wildl. tem Manage. 39:211-214. 39:211-214. Manage. Carl, G. R., and and C. T. Robbins. Robbins. 1988. The The energetic energetic Carl, cost cost of predator predator avoidance avoidance in neonatal neonatal unguungulates: hiding hiding versus versus following. Can. J. Zool. lates: 66:239-246. 66:239-246. Fettman, M. J., P. A A. Brooks, Brooks, K K P. Burrows, Burrows, and and R. R. Fettman, Phillips. 1986. Evaluation Evaluation of commercial commercial W. Phillips. oral oral replacement replacement formulas formulas in healthy healthy neonatal neonatal calves. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:397-401. 188:397-401. Hobbs, Hobbs, N. T., and and D. L. Baker. Baker. 1979. Rearing Rearing and and training elk calves for use in food habits studies. training calves for use habits studies. J. Wildl. Manage. Manage. 43:568-570. 43:568-570. L. D., and and R. W. Phillips. Phillips. 1979. 1979. Treatment Treatment Lewis, L. of of the the calf with with diarrhea. diarrhea. Vet. Clin. of North North Am.: Lg. Anim. Anim. Pract. Pract. 1:395-409. 1:395-409. P. H., T. N. Woodard, Woodard, and and D. L. Baker. Baker. 1979. Neil, P.H., Procedures Procedures for rearingwild rearing wild niminants ruminants in captivcaptivity. Colo. Div. Wildl. Out.door Outdoor ,Facts Facts No. 106. 106. APPENDIX APPENDIX Manufacturer Manufacturer information information for products products listed. listed. Similar Similar products products by other other manufacturers manufacturers arc are available. Calf Manna• Mannae Calf --- Pro-Manna, Pro-Manna, Denver, Denver, CO 80216 80216 Probiose P.robios8 Pioneer Hi-Bred Hi-Bred International, International, Inc., -- Pioneer West Des Moines, IA 50131 50131 West KRse Cutter Animal Animal Health, Health, Mobay Corp., --- Cutter Shawnee, Shawnee, KS 66201 66201 Revive8 Revivee --- TechAmerica, TechAmerica, Fermenta Fermenta Animal Animal Health Co., Kansas Kansas City, MO 64190 64190 Health Biolyte8 Biolytee --- Upjohn Upjohn Co., Kalamazoo, Kalamazoo, MI 49001 49001 Pepto-Bismole --- Procter Pepto-Bismol• Procter and and Gamble,. Gamble, Cincinnat~ Cincinnati, OH 45202 45202 Margaret A Wild, Margaret A. Wild, DVM DVM Michael Michael W. Miller, Miller, DVM, PhD PhD May May 1991 6 �/' t8 -- Outd~or Faots PUBLISHED PUBLISHED BY BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES ~ I:~" .. .' , ~:~ I .. ~ DIVISION DIVISION OF OF WILDLIFE WILDLIFE - ..., ~~ ~'" - Wildlife Wildlife Information Information Leaflet Leaflet ICI Number Number 115 HABITAT MANAGEMENT FOR UPLMffi UPLAND GAME BIRDS BIRDS ON EASTERN EASTERN COLORADO SANDHILL SANDHILL RANGELAND RANGELAND Sandhill Sandhill rangelands rangelands occur south south of the the South South Platte Platte River in portions portions of Sedgwick, Sedgwick,Logan, Phillips, Washington, Morgan, Morgan, Weld, and especially especially Yuma County in addition to extensive areas areas in Baca, Baca, Prowers, and Kiowa counties in eastern eastern Colorado (Fig. (Fig. 1). 1). Unless irrigated, irrigated, these these areas areas are seldom farmed and are dominated by mixtures dominated mixtures of native grasses (primarily (primarily midgrasses), sand sagebrush sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia), areas (Artemisia filifolia), and forbs. Most sandhill areas are privately owned and managed for cattle grazing, however, however, numerous numerous tracts tracts are owned and/or and/or managed by State State and Federal Federal agencies including the the U.S. Forest Forest Service, the the Colorado State State Board of U.S. Land Commissioners, and the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Wildlife. Publicly-owned rangelands rangelands have high potential to be managed for wildlife, wildlife, especially birds, potential either either in replacement replacement of, of, or in addition to, use by livestock. Greater Greater prairie-chickens prairie-chickens (Tympanuchus (Tympanuchus livestock. cupido), lesser lesser prairie-chickens prairie-chickens (T. (T. pallidicinctus pallidicinctus cupido), jamesi), plains sharp-tailed jamesi), sharp-tailed grouse (T. phasianellus), phasianellus), (all listed as threatened threatened or endangered endangered in Colorado), Colorado), and mourning mourning doves (Zenaida (Zenaida macroura), macroura), scaled (Callipepla squamata), squamata), northern northern bobwhite quail (Callipepla (Colinus uirginianus), virginianus), and ring-necked pheasants pheasants (Colinus (Phasianus (Phasianus colchicus) colchicus) are are breeding breeding residents residents in the sandhills. Densities Densities of these these species are low but but there there is potential potential to increase increase their their abundance abundance as well as other other nongame and neotropical migrant migrant species through through habitat habitat management. management. NEBRASKA NEBRASKA WELD WELD LOGAN ADAMS WASHINGTON WASHINGTON ARAPAHOE ARAPAHOE ELBERT ELBERT LINCOLN LINCOLN Bur!inglon @ KIT CARSON KITCARSON 1/l Ul « ~-----------;< ELPASO EL PASO Cl) CIl zz « < :.: ~ PUEBlO Pueblo OTERO 7 Sources of adequate adequate food food are often a major limitation limitation to upland upland game birds birds and other avifauna in rangeland rangeland habitats. Many forbs provide provide highattract insects that that are a energy seeds and also attract nutritious nutritious food food source for many birds. However, perennial perennial and annual annual forbs typically comprise <10% < 10% the total vegetation. Less than than 5% 5% of the plant plant of the LAS ANIMAS ANIMAS BACA OKLAHOMA OKLAHOMA Fig. Fig. 1. 1. Dis1rribution Distribution of sandsage rangelands in eastern eastern Colorado. Colorado. 11 �composition is food-producing forbs and livestock livestock grazing may reduce their their seed production production to insignificant levels for avian species. Unless extensively interspersed interspersed with croplands or other other disturbed disturbed areas, eastern eastern Colorado rangelands rangelands are relatively sterile with respect respect to food food production production for resident resident upland upland birds. sagebrush sagebrush remains remains well distiibuted distributed throughout throughout (Fig. (Fig. 2). 2). A few areas areas up to 4 ha (10 a1) a) that that contain moderate moderate stands stands of sand sagebrush sagebrush should remain remain unburned unburned for longer intervals intervals (15-25 yr) to retain retain old stands stands of sand sagebrush. sagebrush. MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS MANAGEMENT WHERE WHERE GRAZING GRAZING CAN CAN BE BE EXCLUDED EXCLUDED Rangeland Rangeland managed to enhance enhance prairie prairie grouse and other other upland upland birds birds should be retained retained in vigorous subclimax condition; it it should not be left idle and unmanaged unmanaged (Kirsch et al. 1973). 1973). For For Division of Wildlife Wildlife properties, properties, fire, tillage, and partial partial revegetation are are recommended recommended to produce moderate moderate densities of game birds. Prescribed Prescribed burns burns can be used in eastern eastern ColoColorado rado sand.hills sand hills from late April to mid May, May, after greenup greenup of cool cool season grasses, to enhance enhance dominance of tall, warm-season warm-season species such as bluestems (Andropogon (Andropogon spp.), switchgrass switchgrass (Panicum (Panicum uirgatum), virgatum), prairie prairie sandreed sandreed (Calamouilfa (Calamovilfa longifolia) longifolia) assuming they are already common in the the grass assuming composition. If a site is dominated dominated by shortgrass shortgrass and midgrass species such as blue blue grama grama (Bouteloua (Bouteloua gracilis), sand dropseed (Sporobolu.s (Sporobolus cryptandrus), cryptandrus), gracilis), and needle-and-thread needle-and-thread (Stipa (Stipa comata), comata), fire will do little to change change the the composition or increase the the height height and density of residual vegetation. Fire Fire is most effective effective in increasing increasing height and density of grasses during during years of above average rainfall. Because of possible wind erosion, fire should be primarily in mid to late spring spring when when adequate adequate used primarily moisture will ensure ensure rapid regrowth. At least soil moisture soil moisture moisture should be available 0.75 m (2.5 ft) of soil based on soil probe samples. Fire used in late late April to mid-May will remove excess litter litter and enhance enhance growth growth of tallgrass tallgrass species, but but will neither neither enhance enhance the the abundance abundance of forbs nor thin thin dense stands stands of sagebrush. Fire Fire in early spring (Mar to midsand sagebrush. Apr) Apr) will enhance enhance forb growth but but will increase increase the threat threat of erosion. Therefore, tillage is usually recommended in preference preference to burning burning to promote recommended forbs. Prescribed Prescribed burns burns should not be repeated than once every 5 to 10 years where where tall, more than warm-season warm-season grasses grasses dominate. Since sand sand sagebrush brush is valuable for concealment concealment and nesting nesting cover but does not not regrow quickly after fire, fire, several but 40 a) should be separate separate tracts tracts approximating approximating 16 16 ha ((40 burned burned rather rather than than one large block so that that sand Fig. 2. Sand Sand sagebrush sagebrush and and grasses grasses in combination combination provide other provide important important cover for nesting, loafing, loafing, and other wildlife uses in rangelands. rangelands. Tillage of linear linear strips, is re1wm.mended recommended to provide fire guards, promote promote annual annual and perennial perennial forbs, forbs, and convert sites dominated dominated hy by shortgrasses shortgrasses warm-season tallgrasses, perenniial perennial legumes, or to warm-season annual rops (Fig. annual c. crops (Fig. 3). 3). Strip widths widths ,can can range from fireguards up to 33-50! 33-50 m for revege3 to 4 m for fireguards tated taOOdplots. Disking or undercutting undercutting to retain retain plant plant residue on the the surface is recommended. recommended. One residue objective objective of tillage is to create mosaics of vegetation in early to late late successional stages and and to separate separate burned burned tracts tracts in differing st.ages stages of recovery to needs of prairie prairie grouse grouse and other other provide year-long needs species. species. The primary primary objective objective of tillage i!S is production of food. food. Wild sunflower (Helianthu.s (Helianthus annuu.s) annuus) planted planted in tilled sites provides seeds and inseds insects for food food and and winter escape, survival, and hunthuntcover for broods, winter ing cover (Fig. (Fig. 4). Native annuals annuals such as Rocky Mountain beeflower (Celome serrulata) serrulata) and Texas Mountain croton (Croton (Croton texensis) texensis) may be planted planted or may naturally. Growth of native J~erennial perennial forbs occur naturally. such such as western western ragweed (Ambrosia (Ambrosia psilostachya) psilostachya) and sweet pea (La.thyru.s (Lathyrus polymorphus) polymorphus) can be enhanced by shallow tillage. Native legumes and enhanced dryland varieties of alfalfa Oadak (ladak and ranger) provide green Water green succulents succulents for prairie prairie grouse. Water 2 �native bluestems bluestems provide provide excellent excellent st.anding standing residual residual growth of desirable desirable height height and and density density and and are are adapted adapted to subsequent subsequent management management using using fire. Interseeding Interseeding or direct direct seeding seeding into into sod is not not recommended. Sites Sites dominated dominated by indigenous indigenous prairie prairie sandreed, sandreed, sand sand bluestem bluestem (A (A. halli), haW), and and other other deeprooted rooted vegEitation vegetation should should be renovated renovated using using a prescribed prescribed burn burn followed by shallow shallow tillage tillage ( < 10 cm [[4 4 in.)) in.]) to remove competing competing shallow-rooted shallow-rooted species. Aerial application application of liquid liquid herbicides herbicides is not not recommend, ed to thin recommended thin dense dense st.ands stands of sand sand sagebrush brush because because airplanes airplanes can not not safely fly low enough enough in hilly terrain terrain and and increased increased drift drift can affect much wideir wider strips strips than than intended. intended. I recommend recommend using using a tractor-mounted tractor-mounted sprayer sprayer to treat treat 10-to 30-m wide strips strips to create create mosaics of openings openings that that impact impact the site. Partial from 10 to 25% of the Partial thinning thinning is preferable preferable to complete kills. Fig 3. Tillage Tillage destruction destruction of of existing existing vegetation vegetation in small small strips strips or patches patches should should precede precede revegetation revegetation to to tall, warmwarmseason season grasses grasses or food food plantings plantings for for wildlife. wildlife. distributed by drip irrigation irrigation to from windmills, distributed patches of legumes, promotes promotes green green vegetation vegetation into fall and winter. winter. Annual Annual cye rye and winter winter triticale triticale provide green vegetation vegetation throughout throughout winter. winter. Grain sorghum, sorghum-sudan sorghum-sudan hybrids, forage sorghums, sorghums, other sorghum sorghum varieties varieties are adapted adapted to sandy and other food and cover from summer summer soils and provide food through through winter. winter. Patches Patches 1 ha ha (2.5 a) or larger larger are recommended to ensur ensuree that that rodents rodents and other other recommended markedly reduced their their wildlife do not deplete or markedly value for target target bird species. These patches patches should areas with with good soil using using reducedbe placed in low areas methods. till or no-till methods. Fig. Fig. 44.. Wild sunflowers. sunflowers. MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATED WITH GRAZED MANAGEMENTASSOC~TEDvnTHGRAZED LANDS described management management procedures, procedures, if used used The de,scribed intensively, are are not compatible compatible with with livestock grazing. not be coming. However, livestock grazing grazing can not pletely curtailed private and curtailed on most most private and many many public lands. In rangeland rangeland where where shortshort- and midgrasses midgrasses dominate, patches patches up to 1 ha (2.5 ac) should be disked to remove shallow-rooted shallow-rooted perennials perennials and reseeded to mixtures mixtures of tall, warm-season warm-season grasses grasses in early spring spring (Snyder 1990). 1990). Mixtures Mixtures of switchswitchgrass, yellow lndiangrass Indiangrass (Sorgastrum (Sorgastrum nutans), nutans), and Grazi.nr.g Grazing on on Private Private and and Public Public Lands. Lands. -- Restprivate rotation rotation grazing grazing methods methods are are often used used on private and public lands lands in eastern eastern Colorado. Modern Modern makes pasture pasture rotation rotation feasible. In electric fencing makes 33 �or vacant vacant building building sites sites usually usually are are associated associated with with shrub shrub plantings, plantings, windbreaks, windbreaks, and and corrals corrals whicl whicl make make them them attractive attractive to to mourning mourning doves, scaled Sagequail, quail, northern northern bobwhite, bobwhite, and and pheasants. pheasants. brush, brush, in in sandhills, sandhills, helps helps reduce reduce snow snow depth depth in in woody woody plantings plantings increasing increasing survival survival of quail quail through through winter. winter. most most rotations, rotations, 100% 100% of the the land land is grazed grazed each each year, year, When which which is detrimental detrimental to prairie prairie grouse. grouse. When managing managing for prairie prairie grouse, grouse, complete complete rest rest of some some range range each each year year (at (at least least 20%) is desirable. desirable. PasPastured tured tracts tracts should should not not be grazed grazed intensively. intensively. The The optimum optimum for prairie prairie grouse grouse is to graze graze 20-25% of the the area area each each year year leaving leaving 75-80% ungrazed ungrazed which which dictates dictates a 4 or 5-year 5-year rotation. rotation. Grazed Grazed areas areas should should be no larger larger than than 40-50 40-50 ha ha (100-125 a). Prairie Prairie grouse grouse often often move move several several kilometers kilometers to obtain obtain winter winter food and and fly 2-3 km km on a regular regular basis basis to feed in irrigated irrigated corn corn and and alfalfa alfalfa fields fields (northeast(northeastern ern Colorado) Colorado) and and dryland dryland sorghum sorghum fields fields (south(southeastern eastern Colorado). Colorado). However, However, if grouse grouse must must move 6-10 km km or more more to obtain obtain food in late late winter winter and and early early spring, spring, supplemental supplemental food patches patches should should be considered. considered. Increased Increased flock size, movements, movements, and and daily flights flights increase increase probabilities probabilities for predation predation and and reduce reduce opportunities opportunities for lek lek (display (display ground) ground) estabestablishment lishment in in locations locations distant distant from from food. food. Revegetation Revegetation of small small tracts tracts to tall, tall, warmwarmseason season grasses grasses should should be be used used in in sites sites dominated dominated by blue grama grama and and other other shortshort- and and midgrasses. midgrasses. blue Fencing, Fencing, either either permanent permanent or electric, electric, can can be used used to exclude exclude livestock. livestock. Food Food JJroduction Prodzu:tion Enlu:uu:ement Enhancement Within Within Groud Grazed Rangu. Ranges. --- Moderate Moderate winter winter grazing grazing to remove remove and and trample the soil while trample old residual residual and and disturb disturb the while not not impacting impacting plant plant vigor vigor is preferred preferred to summer summer grazgrazing. Winter Winter grazing grazing allows allows greater greater forb-seed forb-seed producproduction tion and and increased increased height height and and density density of standing standing residual residual vegetation. vegetation. Disturbed Disturbed sites sites around around windwindmills mills and and corrals corrals produce produce crotons, crotons, beeflower, beeflower, sunsunflowers, flowers, and and other other forbs forbs of high high seed seed value value if used used by livestock livestock in in winter winter rather rather than than during during the the growing season. season. Weedy sites sites also also provide provide excellent excellent ing Weedy sum.mer summer brood brood habitat habitat for grouse, grouse, quail, quail, and and pheaspheasants. ants. Windmills Windmills should should be left left running running through through summer summer so that that overflow overflow water water can enhance enhance plant plant growth growth and and also also provide provide water water for mourning mourning doves and and other other wildlife. wildlife. There There is considerable considerable potential potential to manage manage rangeland rangeland in in eastern eastern Colorado Colorado for prairie prairie grouse, grouse, quail, mourning mourning doves, and and other other upland upland birds. birds. Management Management to increase increase food abundance, abundance, to convert convert shortshort- and and midgrass midgrass to tallgrass, tallgrass, and and to increase increase the the height height and and density density of residual residual cover cover is best best achieved achieved using using prescribed prescribed burns, burns, tillage, tillage, and and revegetation revegetation techniques where where livestock livestock grazing grazing can be be excluded excluded techniques Within Within grazed grazed rangeland, rangeland, use use of rest-rotation, rest-rotation, seasonal seasonal winter winter grazing, grazing, reduced reduced grazing grazing intensity, intensity, and fencing fencing can be used used to improve improve habitats habitats for and upland game game birds. birds. upland Increasing Increasing the the quantity quantity and and distribution distribution of legumes ana and other other perennial perennial and and annual annual forbs forbs in legumes grazed grazed rangeland rangeland will will benefit benefit wildlife wildlife but but may may not not be readily readily or economically economically achieved. achieved. Direct Direct seeding seeding of legumes legumes and and forbs, like like seeding seeding of grasses, grasses, into into undisturbed undisturbed grass grass is not not practical practical since since new new seedlings lings cannot cannot compete compete well with with established established plants. plants. Interseeding, Interseeding, using using an interseeder interseeder that that creates creates a wide wide furrow, furrow, may may be feasible, feasible, especially especially if grazing grazing is deferred deferred for 11 or or more more years. years. Disking Disking narrow narrow strips strips destroy most most shallow-rooted shallow-rooted grasses grasses before before to destroy planting planting is the the most most practical practical approach. approach. LITERATURE CITED CITED LITERATURE Kirsch, Kirsch, L. M, A A. T. Klett, Klett, and and H. W. W. Miller. Miller. 1973. 1973. Land use and and prairie prairie grouse grouse population population relarelaLand tionships tionships in North North Dakota. Dakota. J. Wildl. Wild!. Manage. Manage. 37:449-453. 37:449-453. Snyder, Snyder, W. D. 1970. Guidelines Guidelines for improving improving scaled scaled quail quail habitat. habitat. Colo. Game, Game, Fish Fish and and Parks Parks Div. Game Game Inform. Inform. Leaf!.. Leat1. No. 78. 3pp. __ _. 1983. 1983. Shrub Shrub thicket thicket establishment establishment in ColoColo_ rado's rado's High High Plains. Plains. Colo. Div. Wild!. Game Game Inform. Inform. Leafl. Leat1. No. 108. 4pp. __ _. 1990. 1990. Establishingswitchgrass Establishing switchgrass for wildlife wildlife in _ eastern eastern Colorado. Colorado. Colo. Div. W.ildl. Wildl. Game Game Inform. Inform. Leafl. Leat1. No. 113. 4pp. use Fencing Fencing small small tracts tracts (~ (s 0.4 ha ha [1 a]) aD to exclude exclude livestock livestock in in pasture pasture corners, corners, near near windmills, windmills, blowouts, outs, or other other sites sites can can be used used in grazed grazed rangerangelands. Disking lands. Disking or other other disturbance disturbance tillage tillage of narrow strips strips within within these these tracts tracts promotes promotes growth growth narrow of wild wild or tame tame annuals annuals for quail quail and and doves. Addition tion of plum plum thickets, thickets, brush brush shelters, shelters, or other other resting resting cover cover allows allows quail quail and and other other birds birds to become become year-long residents year-long residents (Snyder (Snyder 1970, 1983), 1983). Occupied Occupied Warren Warren D. Snyder Snyder Wildlife Wildlife Researcher Researcher February February 1996 4 �, Outd PUBLISHED BY THE THE COLORADO COLORADO PUBLISHED DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF OF WILDLIFE WILDLIFE DIVISION r i '" Wildlife Information Information Leaflet Leaflet Wildlife ~ Number Number 116 COLORADO PRONGHORN PRONGHORN COLORADO COMPATIBILITY AND AND CONFLICTS CONFLICTS WITH WITH AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE COMPATIBILITY ing of pronghorn despite "a storm storm of resentment" resentment" by ing pronghorn despite eastern landowners still still concerned concerned for the the eastern plains plains landowners species' welfare (Hoover et al. 1959:95). 1959:95). The citizens Colorado place the species' welfare (Hoover et The citizens of Colorado place high high value value on the wildlife resources resources of this this state state and, and, through through their their Pronghorn inhabit open open areas areas with with low, sparse sparse wildlife Pronghorn inhabit elected officials, have have given given the the Colorado Division of vegetation where where they they can can rely rely on their their keen keen sight sight Colorado Division elected vegetation Wildlife (CDOW) (CDOW) a mandate mandate to to perpetuate the and speed danger. Because Because of this this trait, trait, perpetuate the Wildlife and speed to avoid danger. state's wildlife resources resources and the they are are easily observed and and are are neither neither secretive secretive state's wildlife and to to provide provide people people the they easily observed opportunity to enjoy them them (Colo. Wild!. Comm. nor nocturnal large ungulates. ungulates. LandownLandownopportunity to enjoy Wild.I. Comm. nor nocturnal like like other other large two-thirds of the the land land in the the ers usually know when when pronghorn are on their land, 1994). Approximately Approximately two-thirds ers usually know pronghorn are their land, state is privately owned; many many species species of free rangwhich can can be be either either a source source of enjoyment enjoyment or or worry, worry, state privately owned; free rangwhich depending on whether or not not the the pronghorn ing wildlife wildlife inhabit inhabit these these private lands. Most Most landpronghorn are are perperdepending whether or ing private lands. landto be damaging crops. owners value value and enjoy wildlife lands and and ceived to damaging crops. owners and enjoy wildlife on their their lands are strong strong advocates advocates of wildlife wildlife conservation conservation (Fig. 1). Landowner attitudes attitudes might more favorable favorable are Landowner might be be more For example, at the the turn century (19th (l9th to saw them them as a fiscal asset asset rather rather For example, at turn of the the century to they saw to wildlife wildlife if they 20th), landowners than than a liability. liability. 20th), landowners across the the west west The CDOW's across The CDOW's were an an integral Ranching for Wildwere integral Ranching part the coalipart of the life program program offers tion of citizens citizens ineconomic incention economic incenstrumental in savsavtives for landownlandownstrumental tives ing pronghorn ers lands ing pronghorn ers whose whose lands (Antilocapra ameramersupport wildlife (Antilocapra support wildlife icana) from extinc(Hopper 1990), (Hopper 1990), icana) from extinction. . They They enenhowever, the the benebenehowever, tion. forced rigid rigid prothis program forced profits of this program tection are More are limited. limited. More tection for prongpronghorn their land land creative programs creative programs horn on their and pressed the are needed to fosare needed and pressed the State ter better State Legislature Legislature ter better managemanagepass protective ment of wildlife wildlife on to pass protective ment laws (Hoover (Hoover et et al. private The laws private lands. lands. The the midmidpronghorn re-pronghorn re 1959). By the 19405, pronghorn source is in 1940s, pronghorn source in high high recovery efforts demand by sportsrecovery efforts demand sportswere successful successful to persons Colorawere to persons in Colorathe that the the (Pojar 1994) the point point that do (Pojar fig. 1. Pronghorn are valued by the citizens citizens of Colorado. Pronghorn fig. State Legislature and could could provide provide State Legislature and inhabit open range where they depend on their their eyesight eyesight and speed to Inhabit avoid danger. (Photo by author) legalized harvestharvestlandowners legalized landowners addiINTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 11 �100.......-~~-~ -~-~~~~~--~100 tional tional income income if managed managed and and market.ed marketed as an an adjunct adjunct product product of their their agricultural agricultural operation operation (Torbit (Torbit et et al. 1993) The The purpose purpose of this this report report is to profile profile the the impacts of pronghorn on agricultural lands. impacts pronghorn agricultural lands. The The intent intent is to to summarize summarize the the role role of pronghorn pronghorn in 3 predominant predominant areas areas of perceived perceived conflict conflict with with agriculagricultural tural operations: operations: 1) competition competition with with livestock livestock for for native vegetation, 2) damage to winter wheat, and native vegetation, damage winter wheat, and 3) the the potential potential to spread spread noxious noxious weeds. weeds. !: 80 Iii 0 80 :1:1; ;11i:::;:;;;;;::,;i;:!::l:;:·~~-:-~~~:: : : :1;1!1l!i i i i i' 1 ~ !z w 0 40 40 ~ II: w W Q. 20·· L~ COMPETITION FOR FOR NATIVE NATIVE FORAGE FORAGE COMPETITION • o + - - - - - - - - --::.i-------ii,;i;i'i;i;if o WINTER WINTER Historically, pronghorn pronghorn and and bison bison (Bison (Bison bison) bison) Historically, coexisted in approximately approximately equal equal numbers numbers on native native coexisted western western ranges ranges (Nelson (Nelson 1925). Because Because direct direct competition competition could be detrimental detrimental to to both both species, species, dietary dietary divergence divergence (Schwartz (Schwartz et et al. 1977) and and funcfunctional tional niche niche separation separation probably probably evolved evolved to facilitate facilitate sympatric sympatric coexistence coexistence (Fig. 2). Consequently, Consequently, there there is little little dietary dietary overlap overlap by pronghorn pronghorn and and large large herbivores herbivores (bison/cattle) (bison/cattle) on native native western western ranges ranges (Yoakum 1980). (Yoakum Pronghorn Pronghorn select select for a diet diet high high in protein protein and and low in in fiber fiber supplied supplied mostly mostly by forbs forbs and and shrubs, shrubs, whereas whereas large large herbivores herbivores such such as as cattle cattle use use grasses grasses almost almost exclusively exclusively (Howard (Howard et et al. 1990, Schwartz Schwartz et et al. 1977). The The exception exception to this this general general relationship relationship occurs occurs during during spring spring green-up green-up when when grasses, grasses, during during early early growth growth stages, stages, can can have have protein protein content content of20% of 20% or greater greater (Schwartz (Schwartz et al. 1977). At At this this time time of year, year, pronghorn pronghorn diets diets may may contain contain up up to 20% grassgrasses (Fig. 3) (Hoover (Hoover et al. 1959). However, However, on a yearlong yearlong basis, basis, grasses grasses comprise comprise only about about 6% SPRING SPRING SUMMER SUMMER FAl.1. FALl Fig. 3. 3. Pronghorn diets on on 1he the gras.&land• grasslands of of ea&1ern eastern Color• Colora(weeds) and shrubs. They feed on do consist mostly of forbs (weeds) grasses grasses only only during spring green-up. green-up. (from (From Hoover et et al. al. 1959) 1959) pronghorn pronghorn diets diets compared compared to to 90% for cattle cattle (Hoover (Hoover The remainder remainder of the the annual annual prongpronget al. 1959). The horn horn diet diet is forbs forbs (43%), shrubs shrubs (40%), and and "other" species %) (Hoover species including including cacti (Opuntia (Opuntia sp.) (11 (11%) (Hoover et et al. 1959). 1959). Pronghorn Pronghorn diets diets can can vary vary widely widely throughout throughout their their range range depending depending on individual individual animal animal variavariation, tion, plant plant availability availability and and abundance, abundance, and and plant plant associations. associations. In northeastern northeastern Colorado, Colorado, pronghorn pronghorn and and cattle cattle had had no dietary dietary overlap overlap on light light or heavily heavily grazed grazed prairie prairie grasslands grasslands (Schwartz (Schwartz and and Nagy Nagy 1976). Conversely, Conversely, the the diets diets of domestic domestic sheep sheep and and prongpronghorn horn include include some some common common forage forage sources; sources; theretheredietary overlap overlap does occur occur between between these these fore, dietary species, species, especially especially during during spring spring (Schwartz (Schwartz and and Nagy Nagy 1976). _. .. . --~-Fig. 2. Bison and pronghorn Flg.2. pronghorn thrived on on the same open prairies prairies for for centuries centuries because because they fed fed primarily.on primarily. on different different forage plants. Cattle Cattle have since replaced bison as the the large large herbivore herbivore on on western ranges ranges and also also forage forage mosdy mostly on on different different plants plants than pronghorn. pronghorn. (left (Left photo by J. Uewer Uewer and right right photo by P. P. Gilbert) Gilbert) ~ & - 22 - -- �forage quality of wheat wheat declines rapidly rapidly at at about about the the time time (late April) forage quality quality of new-growth new-growth native range range is increasing increasing (Schwartz (Schwartz et al. 1977), thus, thus, stimulating stimulating the the change change in pronghorn pronghorn forage selection. Livestock grazing grazing of winter winter wheat wheat is often practiced in areas areas with with better better soil and and moisture moisture conditions tions than than eastern eastern Colorado with with no detrimental detrimental effects, and possibly some beneficial beneficial effects (through (through stooling), on grain grain yield (Christiansen (Christiansen 1985) 1985) (Fig. 5). Trampling Trampling and and soil disturbance disturbance from cattle cattle grazing grazing did not reduce reduce grain grain yields in the the opinion of wheat wheat farmers farmers in Montana Montana (Cole and and Wilkins Wilkins 1958). WINTER WINTER WHEAT WHEAT Strip Strip farming farming is practiced practiced in eastern eastern Colorado to conserve conserve soil moisture moisture and reduce reduce wind wind erosion. Most soils in eastern eastern Colorado are susceptible susceptible to wind wind erosion, and and soil moisture moisture for crop production production is frequently frequently inadequate. inadequate. The primary primary factor for dcy dry land land winter winter wheat wheat grain grain yield is the the amount amount and timing timing of precipitation. precipitation. During During times times of marginal marginal soil moisture, moisture, winter winter wheat wheat yields are diminished diminished by wind wind erosion, mortality mortality of seedlings, and retarded retarded development development of seed heads. Pronghorn Pronghorn use wheat wheat fields primarily primarily during during winter winter and and spring spring (Cole and and Wilkins Wilkins 1958, Liewer Liewer 1988). 1988). Wheat Wheat plant plant material material in the the rumens rumens of pronghorn pronghorn collected on or adjacent adjacent to wheat wheat fields during during November November through through April in eastern eastern Colorado ranged ranged from 4 to 100% and averaged averaged 74% 74% (Fig. 4) (Hoover et al. 1959). 1959). A study study in Colorado (Liewer 1988), based based on sound sound statistical statistical design and and procedures, dures, quantified quantified the the effects on wheat wheat production production of pronghorn pronghorn grazing grazing on wheat wheat fields in the the winter. winter. No reduction reduction in yields were were found found under under 3 levels of grazing grazing pressure. pressure. One treatment treatment level imposed intense intense grazing grazing pressure pressure of 430 pronghorn/mi pronghorn/mi2 2 for 172 days (Nov-Apr) and still no reduction reduction in subsequent quent grain grain yield was was observed. In Colorado, pronghorn pronghorn use wheat wheat fields primarprimarDecember through through April. Their Their use of ily from December wheat fields begins begins to diminish diminish in March March and they they wheat completely abandon abandon wheat wheat for native native range range by late late April before the the "jointing" stage of wheat wheat growth growth begins begins (Torbit (Torbit et al. 1993). Grazing Grazing of wheat wheat during during or after after the the "jointing" stage has been been shown shown to reduce grain grain yields (Cole and Wilkins 1958). 1958). The • I Fig. s. 5. Livestock Uvestock grazing grazing of winter wheat la Is commonly commonly practiced to use available forage and apparently without detrimental detrimental effects on grain yield. (Photo (Photo by J. A. Uewer) potential for up-rooting up-rooting of sprouted sprouted wheat wheat The potential plants plants is most most pronounced pronounced when when there there is sufficient sufficient soil moisture moisture to germinate germinate seeds in the the fall but but insufficient insufficient moisture moisture to foster foster adequate adequate root development ment (Hoover et al. 1959). The magnitude magnitude of this this problem problem is unknown unknown and and has not not been been directly addressed quantitatively. quantitatively. However, However, (Liewer (Liewer 1988) addressed observations of plants reported reported *few" "few"observations plants being being uprooted uprooted through through feeding, pawing, or trampling. trampling. With With adequate adequate moisture, moisture, plants plants uprooted uprooted in a random random pattern pattern by a grazing grazing animal animal may be replaced by tillering tillering of neighboring neighboring plants. plants. If, however, an animal animal systematically systematically uprooted uprooted plants plants in a concentrated concentrated area, area, then then a reduction reduction in grain grain yield relative relative to the the area area of uprooted uprooted plants plants would be expected. ~1 Fig. graze winter wheat fields Fig. 4. 4. Pronghorn Pronghorngraze ftekls during winter and early spring spring but studies failed 1o to find any reduction reduction In grain grain early yields as the 1he result result of pronghorn pronghorn grazing. grazing. (Photo by by J. Uewer) Uewer) 33 �Even to the the casual casual observer, wind erosion on the the eastern eastern plains plains of Colorado is a problem problem (Fig. 6). moisture, and ground ground cover are key Soil type, soil moisture, factors in soil stability. stability. Fallow wheat wheat ground, ground, newly ploughed ploughed fields, and and sewn wheat wheat fields before adequate adequate plant plant growth growth is established, established, are are especially susceptible susceptible to wind wind erosion. Under Under certain certain conditions, precipitation precipitation will bind soil particles particles together together on the surface surface to form a "crust." "crust." Under Under light light to moderate moderate wind wind velocities this this crust crust may protect protect the the soil from wind wind erosion. Quantitative Quantitative evidence that that the the crust crust reduces reduces wind wind erosion is lacking but but empirical evidence suggests suggests that that it does. Pronghorn Pronghorn inhabit inhabit wheat wheat fields during during winter winter and spring spring when when high winds winds are are most most common in Colorado. During During dry years, years, it is possible that that pronghorn pronghorn contribute contribute to some unknown unknown amount amount of additional wind erosion erosion by disturbing disturbing the the crust. additional The The contribution contribution of pronghorn pronghorn tracks tracks to erosion would be difficult to quantify quantify because because of several other other factors, the the most most important important of which which is tilled, light light soil devoid of stabilizing stabilizing vegetation. vegetation. Tillage of light, unstable unstable soil will result result in wind wind erosion regardless regardless of the the presence presence or absence absence of pronghorn. pronghorn. NOXIOUS NOXIOUS WEEDS WEEDS - BINDWEEJD BINDWEED Field bindweed bindweed (Convolvu.lus (Convolvulus an1Jensis), arvensis), considered the "worst weed" in Coloradlo Colorado (Harrington (Harrington 1964:438), 1964:438), is native to Europe Europe and and wi;!Stern western Asia and and was first discovered in the the eastern eastern United United States States (Virginia) in 1739. 1739. Bindweed spread. spread to the the western western wheat wheat seed wheat producing producing states states around around 18701 1870 in wheat imported from the the Ukrainian Ukrainian reil~on region of Russia Russia imported (Peterson (Peterson and Stahlman Stahlman 1989). 1989). Today millions of acres of cultivated cultivated lands lands are infested infested with with this this formidable formidable plant plant (Fig. 7). Control Control is difficult and and eradication eradication nearly impossible because: 1) the the seed can remain remain dormant dormant in the the soil for a:o 30 years years (Peter(Peterson and and Stahlman Stahlman 1989), 1989), 2) the the root system system reaches reaches depths depths of 20 feet, 3) lateral lateral roots spread spread to an an 18inch depth and radiate et, and radiate out to 17 fe! feet, and 4) a 2inch section of root can establish establish a new plant plant (Best 1963). 1963). Control of bindweed bindweed is is an exacting exacting process. Herbicides, such as glyphosate glyphosate (Roitmdup), (Roundup), do not not kill all the shoot buds on the the roo,ts roots and and treated treated plants plants can reinfest reinfest an an area area within within 3 to 6 weeks (Lauridson (Lauridson 1986). 1986). The greatest greatest red1u.ction reduction (79%) in in new new plant plant shoots was obtained obtained with with a pretreatment pretreatment application (0.028 kg/ ha) of glypl:nosate kgjha) glyphosate followed followed within 3 days by an application application of 2-4-D at at within 2.24kg/ha 2.24kgjha (Lauridson (Lauridson 1986:19). 1986:19). Bindweed is seldom listed am,ong the forage among the items in pronghorn pronghorn diets (Ryan et al al. 1984). The shortcoming that shortcoming of most food food habits habits :studies studies is that forage availability is not provided and, in most most cases, it is not known known if bindweed bindweed was available for pronghorn to consume. Trace amounts were amounts of bindweed bindweed were reported reported in pronghorn pronghorn rumen rumen samples samples from Colorado (Hoover et al. 1959) and Califor;nia California (Ferrel (Ferrel and and Leach 1950 1950 and and 1952). 1952). It It was listed, along with with (Taraxacum sp.) and prickly lettuce lettuce dandelion (Taraxacum (Lactuca scariola), scariola), as a "frequently "frequently used forb" by (Lactuca pronghorn pronghorn on a winter winter wheat wheat field in Montana Montana during during summer summer (Cole and Wilkins 1958:15). 1958:15). In a controlled controlled experiment, experiment, vfable viable bindweed bindweed In seeds were were retrieved retrieved after after passage through through a pronghorn digestive system (Ryan et al. 1984). Field ripened seeds, collected after after frost to ensure ensure maxiripened mum used in this mum hardness, hardness, were were .used this E~eriment. experiment. Of the 2,000 seeds fed the the experimental experimental animal, animal, 82% were that were destroyed destroyed in the the digestive tralct. tract. Seeds that passed through through the the digestive tract tract germinated germinated at at a slightly higher higher rate rate than than control seeds because because of the the mechanical and acidic scarification1 scarification that that occurred occurred mechanical during during the the digestive process. There is no information information as to whether whether or or not There foraging pronghorn pronghorn select for bindweed bindweed seed pods Fig. Fig. 6. Ught aolls soils without without vegetative cover cover are are susceptible to Colorado. (Photos by by J. J. A. A. u-er) U_er) wind erosion In Colorado. 4 �because segment of root because a 2-inch segment start a new plant. plant. Also, feedcan start ing livestock livestock. contaminated contaminated hay or grain, then spreading infested spreading infested grain, then manure, is another manure, another source of bindweed infestation (Peterson bindweed infestation (Peterson Stahlman 1989). Wind and and Stahlman water erosion, feet of animals, animals, water wheels of vehicles, road maintemaintewheels nance equipment, equipment, birds, rodents, nance birds, rodents, lagomorphs, and other other wildlife, lagomorphs, including pronghorn, including pronghorn, can all contribute to the the spread spread of bindweed. bindweed. tribute Finally, since bindweed bindweed seeds are harvested difficult to remove from harvested grains (Peterson (Peterson and Stahlcereal grains Stahlman the original source of man 1989), the bindweed introduction to North bindweed introduction North America, seed sources sources of cereal grains are undoubtedly grains are undoubtedly still a ..J in establishing bindweed factor establishing bindweed in FIg.7. bindweed seeds seeds are are hard hard coated coated and can remain remain viable years. Fig. 7. Ripe Ripe bindweed and can viable for for 30 years. that were that were once free of the the fields Bindweed Infestation Is detrimental detrimental to to agricultural agricultural crops can be be spread spread by by Bindweed infestation crops and and can vegetative parts as well (Left photo photo by by C. E. Townsend Townsend and right photo photo vegetative parts well as seeds. seeds. (Left and right weed. by W. D. Snyder) Snyder) by Pronghorn have not not been Pronghorn been implicated other the spread spread of other implicated in the noxious weeds. If over 80% of the the during any phenological stage. In Montana, hard-coated seeds of bindweed are destroyed destroyed in the during Montana, Cole hard-coated bindweed are the during pronghorn tract (Ryan et al. 1984), it pronghorn digestive tract and Wilkins Wilkins (1958) found use of the the weed during summer, but during fall when when the the seeds were reasonable to assume that seeds of but not during would seem reasonable assume that summer, maximum hardness; their results other noxious weeds weeds without without hard hard seed coats are hardness; their results did not ripe and at maximum other other noxious weeds eaten eaten indicate what were found in the the rumen rumen what plant plant parts parts were indicate destroyed. Examples Examples of other quantity (more than than 15% 15% of rumen rumen contents) contents) by vegetative parts, pronghorn eat only vegetative parts, samples. If pronghorn in quantity which could be assumed summer rather rather than than fall pronghorn (Hoover et al. 1959) are: Canada Canada thistle thistle which assumed by summer pronghorn consumption, then then their their use of the the plant plant consumption, would inhibit inhibit its development, development, especially under dry conditions. conditions. Consumption Consumption of under diy they reach the the hardened hardened stage seeds before they result in their their destruction destruction would likely result hardened seeds are desince over 80% of hardened stroyed. information suggests the Available information suggests the pronghorn the spread pronghorn plays a minor minor role in the spread of bindweed and the the relative impact of this this relative impact bindweed and spreading bindweed source for spreading bindweed should should be measured against against other other sources put it in measured sources to put proper perspective. Harvesting Harvesting and proper perspective. and tillage machinery are are probably the most most common machineiy probably the means of spreading spreading bindweed means bindweed (Best (Best 1963, Peterson and Stahlman Stahlman 1989) (Fig. 8). Peterson Harvesting equipment equipment that that is not not thorthorHarvesting oughly cleaned is a prime transoughly prime source of transport port of seeds between between fields and between between Fig. Tillage equipment equipment can can be a major major cause cause of of spreading spreading bindweed bindweed Ag. 8. TIiiage farms (Fig. 9.). Tillage equipment equipment is likely farms because a 2-lnch 2·lnch segment segment of of root root can can start start a new new plant; plant (Photo (Photo by by W. because Snyder) the major major source of within within field transport D. Snyder) the transport 5 6 �Wildlife resources resources are are intimately intimately connected connected to the social, political, economic, technological, and and the ecological status status of a state state (Schenborn (Schenborn 1985). The The citizens citizens of Colorado value value the the pronghorn pronghorn resource resource and, according according to an independent independent survey, 6 of 10 10 Coloradans Coloradans prefer prefer that that the the number number of pronghorn pronghorn in to verify. The numerous numerous complaints complaints and and perceived damage damage may may be partially partially due to the the conspicuous conspicuous presence presence of pronghorn pronghorn because because they they are not not nocturnocturin their their habits. habits. nal or cryptic in Pronghorn Pronghorn do feed on wheat wheat plant plant parts parts during during winter winter and spring, spring, but but even under under experimentally experimentally grazing pressure pressure ((430 pronghorn/mi2 2 for forced high grazing 430 pronghorn/mi 172 days) grain were not not reduced reduced (Liewer grain yields were 1988, Torbit Torbit et al. 1993). Environmental Environmental variables variables 1988, (most not.ably, notably, precipitation) precipitation) were were the the overriding overriding grain yield (Li.ewer (Liewer 1988). Evidence Evidence from factors in grain this this study study indicates indicates that that grain grain production production and pronghorn pronghorn grazing grazing are are compatible compatible (Torbit (Torbit et al. 1993). Numerous pronghorn pronghorn food habits habits studies studies Numerous conclude that that pronghorn pronghorn do not not compete compete with with cattle Niche separation on native native range. range. separation with with large herbivores was was established established during during coevolution with with herbivores The ecological ecological relationship relationship between between prongbison. The horn horn and large large herbivores herbivores may even be described described as mutualism - a situation situation where where each a form of mutualism benefits from the the presence presence of the the other. other. species benefits Pronghorn Pronghorn eat eat forage that that is not not used used by cattle cattle and, in fact, some of the the plants plants eaten eaten by pronghorn pronghorn are poisonous poisonous to cattle cattle (Hoover (Hoover et al. aI. 1959). Reduction Reduction of plant plant biomass biomass not used by cattle releases releases moisture moisture nutrients for use by grasses. grasses. Likewise, Likewise, cattle cattle and nutrients grazing grazing and trampling trampling fosters fosters forb and shrub shrub growth, which which is beneficial to pronghorn. pronghorn. It would seem that that the the evolutionacy evolutionary compatibility compatibility of pronghorn horn and and large large herbivores herbivores has not been been changed changed with with the the substitution substitution of cattle cattle for bison on western western rangeland. rangeland. most successful means means of of reducing reducing wind The most erosion erosion has been been through through the the taxpayer taxpayer funded funded Conservation servation Reserve Reserve Program Program (CRP), which which has reduced reduced overall erosion erosion by an estimated estimated 22% and saved 350 million tons tons of top soil from wind erosion erosion (Senft (Senft 1994). It is of concern to taxpayers taxpayers that that after after an investment investment of $19.2 billion in this this program program the the contracts will terminate. terminate. An estimated estimated 90% of CRP contracts ili~ ma~ oe increaaen(~tAnnaee thesta~ Deincreasea (Stana~e A~cnrMch, Accurooch, Inc, Inc. the lann lana in eas~rn oosrern Coloraoo Colorano m willll b beerere·nloufhea tne olouihe~ for Fig. Fig. 9. Bindweed Bindweed seeds seeds are difficult difficult to separate separate from cereal cereal Western wheat-producing wheat-producing states were originally grain. Western Infested Infested with blndweeckontaminated blndweed-contaminated seed seed sources from Russia Russia. Contaminated Contaminated seed seed Is sbll still aa major factor In the spread spread of bindweed. bindweed. (Photo (Photo by author) author) (Cirsium aroense), arvense), cacti, and and broom broom snakeweed snakeweed (Cirsium (Gutierrezia (Gutierrezia sarothrae). sarothrae). Plants Plants that that are poisonous poisonous livestock are are dominant dominant in prongto some classes of livestock horn diets during during certain certain times times of the the year. Such horn plants plants include: vetches vetches (Astragalus (Astragalus sp.), globemallow (Sphaeralcea (Sphaeralcea coccinea), coccinea), and larkspur larkspur (Delphinium (Delphinium sp.). Hoover Hoover et al. (1959) suggested suggested that that because because pronghorn pronghorn consume consume poisonous poisonous and and noxious plants plants other plants plants that that compete compete with with grasses, grasses, they they are are and other beneficial on most most livestock ranges. ranges. SUMMARY SUMMARY grain grain production production (Senft (Senft 1994) 1994) and exposed to wind erosion. Tillage of highly highly erodible erodible land land will result result in wind erosion erosion and and the the contribution contribution of pronghorn pronghorn to this this erosion is unknown. unknown. It would would seem that that pronghorn horn influence influence would be minor minor in relation relation to the the other other contributing contributing factors such as soil type, soil moisture, moisture, vegetative vegetative cover, and, most most importantly, importantly, wind wind velocity. Crop damage damage by pronghorn pronghorn is usually usually circumstantial and and difficult to measure measure and document. document. stantial This indicates indicates that that they they may be compatible compatible with with the the majority majority of agricultural agricultural operations. operations. Pronghorn Pronghorn may may 1991:22). Pronghorn Pronghorn populations populations primarily primarily occur on private private agricultural agricultural lands, lands, so compatibility compatibility with with agricultural agricultural production production is an an issue. At current current pronghorn pronghorn population population levels, verifiable damage damage is not not significant. significant. Annual Annual damage damage claims paid paid by the the CDOW from 1978-90, averaged averaged $3,331, representing representing 1.3% 1.3% of_ of total total statewide statewide damage damage payments payments for all wildlife species (Pojar (Pojar 1991). 1991). In spite of relatively low damage payments, payments, damage damage complaints complaints by landowners landowners are are numerous, numerous, indicating indicating that that real damage damage by pronghorn pronghorn is either either minor minor or is difficult 66 �Liewer, J. A. A 1988. 1988. Pronghorn Pronghorn grazing impacts impacts on winter winter wheat. M.S. M.S. Thesis, Colo. Colo. State State Univ., Ft. Ft. Collins. 32 pp. pp. Nelson, E. W. W. 1925. 1925. Status Status of the the pronghorned pronghorned antelope, 1922-1924. 1922-1924. U.S. Dep. of Ag. Ag. Bull. 1346. 1346. 64 pp. Peterson, Peterson, D. D.,1 and and P. P. W. W. Stahlman. Stahlman. 1989. 1989. Field bindweed control control in field crops and and fallow. fallow. Coop. Ext. Sezv., Serv., Manhattan, Manhattan, Kansas. Puhl. Publ. MF-913. MF-913. 6 pp. Pojar, T. M. M. 1991. 1991. Pronghorn Pronghorn management management analysis guide, 1992-1994. 1992-1994. Colo. Colo. Div. Div. Wildl., Research Research Center, Ft. Collins. 17 17 pp. ___ _ , T. M. M. 1994. 1994. Colorado pronghorn pronghorn statUB status report report 1994. 1994. l?ronghom Pronghorn Antelope Antelope Work.shop Workshop (In Un Press). Ryan, L. 1. A, A, T. M. Pojar, and C. E. Townsend. Townsend. 1984. 1984. Viability of bindweed bindweed seeds after after passage passage through through a pronghorn pronghorn digestive system. Pronghorn Pronghorn Antelope Antelope Workshop Workshop 11:225-232. 11:225-232. Schenborn, Schenborn, D. D. A A 1985. 1985. Environmental Environmental scanning: The The difference between between strategic strategic success and and failure. Trans. N. Amer. Wild!. Wildl. Nat. Res. Res. Conf. 50:304-312. 50:304-312. Trans. into production. Senft, D. 1994. 1994. Bringing Bringing idled land land back back.into production. Agricultural Agricultural Research. U.S. U.S. Dep. of Ag., Ag., Ag. Ag. Res. Res. Serv. August, pp 10-11. 10-11. Standage Standage Accureach, Inc. Inc. 1991. 1991. Colorado Division of Wildlife big big game survey. Standage Standage Accureach, Inc., Denver. 116 pp. Swartz, C. C. C. 1977. 1977. Pronghorn Pronghorn grazing grazing strategies strategies on the the shortgrass shortgrass prairie, prairie, Colorado. PhD. Diss., Colo. State State Univ., Ft. Collins. 113 113 pp. _ __ _,' and and J. G. Nagy. 1976. 1976. Pronghorn Pronghorn diets relative to forage availability in northeastern northeastern Colorado. Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. Manage. 40:469-4 40:469-478. Wildl. 78. __ _, ---1 __ , and R. R. W. W. Rice. Rice. 1977. 1977. Pronghorn Pronghorn dietazy dietary _ quality relative to forage availability availability and other other ruminants nants in Colorado. JJ.. Wildl. Manage. Manage. 41:161-168. 41:161-168. Torbit, S. C., R R. B. B. Gill, A A W. Alldredge, and J. C. C. Liewer. 1993. 1993. Impact Impact of pronghorn pronghorn grazing on winter winter wheat wheat in in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 57:17357:173181. 181. Yoakum. Yoakum, J. 1980. 1980. Habitat Habitat management management guides for the the American Pronghorn Pronghorn Antelope. U.S. Dep. Int., Bur. Bur. 77 pp. Land Manage. Tech. Note 347. 77 be be viewed viewed as as a potential potential revenue-producing revenue-producing part part of the the operation. operation. Collaboration Collaboration between between landowners landowners and and the the CDOW CDaW could could result result in in ways ways of exploiting exploiting Colorado Colorado pronghorn pronghorn herds herds to to benefit benefit the the species, species, landowners, landowners, and and the the citizency citizenry of Colorado. Colorado. My appreciation appreciation is extended extended to to J. A. Llewer, Liewer, R. W. Hoffman, Hoffman, and and D. F. Reed Reed for their their helpful helpful comments ments on early early versions versions of this this manuscript. manuscript. I am am indebt.ed indebted to to P. Gilbert, Gilbert, J. Liewer, Liewer, W. Snyder, Snyder, and and C. Townsend Townsend for the the use use of their their photographs. photographs. The The impetus impetus for this this paper paper was was provided provided by R. B. Gill and and L. H. Carpenter Carpenter in in assigning assigning me me to attend attend and and testify testify at at a State State Agriculture Agriculture Committee Committee meeting meeting (Denver, (Denver, September September 1994) 1994) regarding regarding the the conflicts conflicts of pronghorn pronghorn and and agricultural agricultural operations operations in Colorado. Colorado. LITERATURE LITERATURE CITED CITED Best, K K F. 1963. 1963. Note Note on the the extent extent of lateral lateral spread spread of field bindweed. Can. J. Plant Plant Sci Sei 43:230-232. 43:230-232. Christiansen, Christiansen, S. S. 1985. 1985. Grazing Grazing of wheat in the the vegetative stage: shoots. Proc. Natl. Wheat Wheat Pas. Sym. 244-255. Oklahoma Oklahoma State State University. University. Pp. Pp.244-255. Cole, G. G. F., and B. T. Wilkins. 1958. 1958. The The pronghorn pronghorn antelope antelope its range range use and food habits habits in central central Montana Montana with special reference reference to wheat. wheat. Montana Montana Game and Fish Fish Dep., Tech. Bull. 2. 39 pp. pp. Colorado Wildlife Commission. 1994. 1994. Long range plan. Colo. Div. Div. Wildl., Wildl., Denver. 32 pp. Colo. Ferrel, C. C. M., M., and and H. R. Leach. 1950. 1950. Food habits habits of the the Ferrel, pronghorn pronghorn antelope antelope of California. Calif. Calif. Fish and 36:21-26. Game 36:21-26. _ __ _,' and _ __ _. 1952. 1952. The The pronghorn pronghorn antelope antelope of California California with special reference reference to food habits. Calif. Calif. Fish and Game 38:285-293. 38:285-293. Harrington, Harrington, H. D. 1964. 1964. Manual Manual of the the plants plants of Colorado. Sage Sage Press, Chicago. 666 pp. Hoover, R R. L., C. E. Till, and S. S. Ogilvie. Ogilvie. 1959. 1959. The The anteHoover, lope of Colorado. A research research and management management Colo. Dep. Game and Fish. Tech. Bull. 4. study. Colo. 110 pp. ll0pp. Hopper, Hopper, R R. M. M. 1990. 1990. Evaluation, Evaluation, issues, and and challenges of the the wildlife ranching ranching program program in Colorado. Pronghorn Pronghorn Antelope Antelope Workshop Workshop 14:84-101. 14:84-101. Howard, V. W., Jr., Jr., J. L. Holechek, R R. D. Pieper, K K Green-Hammond, Green-Hammond, M. M. Cardenas, and and S. S. L. Beasom. 1990. 1990. Habitat Habitat requirements requirements for pronghorn pronghorn on rangeland land impacted impacted by livestock and net net wire in eastcentral New Mexico. Mexico. N. Mex. Mex. State State Univ. Agric. Agric. Exp. central Sta. Bull. 750. 48 pp. Lauridson, Lauridson, T. C. 1986. 1986. Effect of foliar treatments treatments on distribution of 14 14C-Glyphosate Convolvulus distribution C-Glyphosate in Convolvulus arvensis arvensis L. PhD. Diss., Diss., Colo. Colo. State State Univ., Ft. Co}. Coltins. lins. 85 85 pp. Thomas Thomas M. Pojar Pojar Wildlife Researcher Researcher Wildlife April April 1996 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource CPW Research Series Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/NoC-NC/1.0/">No Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Only</a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Outdoor Facts: Game Information Leaflet (1965-1996) Description An account of the resource Short (1-5 page) leaflets that served as in-house scientific notes. The series was published from 1965-1996. The first 106 leaflets were published from 1965-1980; the last ten published sporadically until 1996. <br /><br />Leaflets are combined in one pdf file (with bookmarks). Leaflet numbers and titles are below. <br /><br />Print copies located in CPW Research Library: SK 351 .G21<br /><br /> <table width="637"> <tbody> <tr> <td width="71">#</td> <td width="420">Title&nbsp;</td> <td width="146">Author</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td width="420">Upland game bird facts&nbsp;</td> <td>Sandfort, Wayne W.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td width="420">Care of big game hides</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td width="420">Wild turkey hunting techniques&nbsp;</td> <td>Burget, Martin L.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td width="420">Productivity rates, age classes, and sex ratios of spring-caught beavers in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td width="420">Artificial revegetation on big game winter ranges</td> <td>White, Claude E., Jr.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td width="420">Some effects of heavy use on browse plants&nbsp;</td> <td>Shepherd, Harold R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td width="420">Sex determination in dressed elk carcasses&nbsp;</td> <td>Denney, Richard N.,</td> </tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td width="420">Warbles of cottontail rabbits&nbsp;</td> <td>Pillmore, Richard E.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td width="420">Lungworms in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Pillmore, Richard E.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td width="420">Lungworm in bighorn sheep&nbsp;</td> <td>Pillmore, Richard E.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td width="420">Buffalo peaks bighorn seasons&nbsp;</td> <td>Pillmore, Richard E.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>12</td> <td width="420">Rabies and wildlife&nbsp;</td> <td>Pillmore, Richard E.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>13</td> <td width="420">Lungworm and lambs&nbsp;</td> <td>Pillmore, Richard E.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>14</td> <td width="420">Effects on pheasants of certain insecticides applied under modified field conditions in eastern Colorado : a thesis summary&nbsp;</td> <td>Tigner, James R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>15</td> <td width="420">Aging pheasant embryos&nbsp;</td> <td>Sandfort, Wayne W.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>16</td> <td width="420">Incubation, brooding, and care of pheasants&nbsp;</td> <td>Mansfield, Willis G.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>17</td> <td width="420">Relationship of pheasant weights to winter stress and starvation&nbsp;</td> <td>Swope, Harold M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>18</td> <td width="420">The history, function and establishment of exclosures in Colorado big game management&nbsp;</td> <td>Baker, Bertram D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>19</td> <td width="420">Controlling rubber rabbitbrush with 2,4-D&nbsp;</td> <td>Smith, Donald G</td> </tr> <tr> <td>20</td> <td width="420">Colorado big game species as possible vectors of some livestock diseases&nbsp;</td> <td>Denney, Richard N.,</td> </tr> <tr> <td>21</td> <td width="420">Procedures in the appraisal of big game use of stacked alfalfa or native hay&nbsp;</td> <td>Boyd, Raymond J</td> </tr> <tr> <td>22</td> <td width="420">Duck wing surveys&nbsp;</td> <td>Hopper, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>23</td> <td width="420">Two condition indices of the Cache la Poudre mule deer herd and their application to management&nbsp;</td> <td>Anderson, Allen E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>24</td> <td width="420">Pellet group deposition rates for captive deer&nbsp;</td> <td>McKean, William T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>25</td> <td width="420">Techniques for census of scaled quail&nbsp;</td> <td>Hoffman, Donald M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>26</td> <td width="420">Mourning dove migration in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Funk, Howard D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>27</td> <td width="420">Evaluation of a combined blue grouse-wild turkey hunting season&nbsp;</td> <td>Myers, Gary T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>28 rev</td> <td width="420">The effects of small rodents on deer winter range&nbsp;</td> <td>Shepherd, Harold R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>28</td> <td width="420">The effects of small rodents on deer winter range&nbsp;</td> <td>Shepherd, Harold R.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>29</td> <td width="420">Reliability of turkey sex and age ratio data based on hunter report card returns&nbsp;</td> <td>Myers, Gary T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>30</td> <td width="420">Aerial waterfowl census techniques&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>31</td> <td width="420">Browse range transects : purposes and guidelines for establishment&nbsp;</td> <td>Baker, Bertram D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>32</td> <td width="420">An automatic camera recorder for census and identification of wildlife&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>33</td> <td width="420">Factors that should be considered in determining techniques for sexing and aging the southern white-tailed ptarmigan, lagopus leucurus altipetens&nbsp;</td> <td>Rogers, Glenn E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>34</td> <td width="420">Sex and age ratios of deer harvested under a hunters-choice, multiple-license hunting season&nbsp;</td> <td>Rogers, Glenn E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>35</td> <td width="420">Preparation of a potting medium for plants&nbsp;</td> <td>Webster, Lawrence A.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>36</td> <td width="420">Capturing big game animals by the use of drugs&nbsp;</td> <td>Gordon, David F.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>37</td> <td width="420">Weather and sage grouse productivity&nbsp;</td> <td>Gill, R. Bruce</td> </tr> <tr> <td>38</td> <td width="420">Yield and utilization of three deer winter range browse species&nbsp;</td> <td>Medin, Dean E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>39</td> <td width="420">General information on food and cover requirements of grouse in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Rogers, Glenn E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>40</td> <td width="420">Chronology of waterfowl migration in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>41</td> <td width="420">Renovation of oakbrush habitat as a range improvement project for game clubs.</td> <td>Shepherd, Harold R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>42</td> <td width="420">Survival of mountain mahogany transplants on two sites, Little Hills experiment station, Rio Blanco County, Colorado, 1965&nbsp;</td> <td>McKean, William T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>43</td> <td width="420">A technique for mapping wildlife habitat in farmland areas&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>44</td> <td width="420">Deer mirrors : do they work?</td> <td>Boyd, Raymond J</td> </tr> <tr> <td>45</td> <td width="420">Merriam's turkey roost preferences on mountain ranges&nbsp;</td> <td>Hoffman, Donald M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>46</td> <td width="420">Field methods for determination of sex and age of mourning doves&nbsp;</td> <td>Funk, Howard D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>47</td> <td width="420">Use of paint for marking deer pellet-groups : a thesis summary&nbsp;</td> <td>Kufeld, Roland C</td> </tr> <tr> <td>48</td> <td width="420">Nesting structures for Canada geese&nbsp;</td> <td>Grieb, Jack R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>49</td> <td width="420">Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics&nbsp;</td> <td>Beck, Thomas D. I.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>50</td> <td width="420">Photographic backdrop : a range study aid&nbsp;</td> <td>Baker, Bertram D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>51</td> <td width="420">The Barbary sheep&nbsp;</td> <td>Gordon, David F</td> </tr> <tr> <td>52</td> <td width="420">Aids for the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep hunter in Colorado.</td> <td>Tully, Robert J.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>53</td> <td width="420">Effects of hunting on the selection of resting areas by mallards in west-central Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Sandfort, Wayne W.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>54</td> <td width="420">Determination of age and sex of the southern white-tailed ptarmigan&nbsp;</td> <td>Braun, Clait E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>55</td> <td width="420">Visual sex determination of mountain goats as related to selective hunting potential&nbsp;</td> <td>Hibbs, L. Dale</td> </tr> <tr> <td>56</td> <td width="420">The pheasant crowing count census and factors affecting its reliability&nbsp;</td> <td>Swope, Harold M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>57</td> <td width="420">Deer trapping and tagging results at the Little Hills Experiment Station.</td> <td>Bartmann, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>58</td> <td width="420">Canada goose populations of Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Grieb, Jack R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>59</td> <td width="420">Pellet-plot robot : an aid in making pellet-group counts.</td> <td>Shepherd, Harold R</td> </tr> <tr> <td>60</td> <td width="420">The breeding season in migratory mule deer&nbsp;</td> <td>Anderson, Allen E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>61</td> <td width="420">Air-ground comparison counts of breeding ducks in the San Luis Valley&nbsp;</td> <td>Hopper, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>62</td> <td width="420">Gestation periods, litter sizes, and breeding habits of Colorado furbearers&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>63</td> <td width="420">A device for opening deer and elk jaws&nbsp;</td> <td>Kufeld, Roland C.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>64</td> <td width="420">Techniques for measuring shrub crown intercept when employing the line intercept method of sampling range vegetation&nbsp;</td> <td>Baker, Bertram D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>65</td> <td width="420">A modified gallinaceous guzzler for scaled quail&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>66</td> <td width="420">Survival of transplanted cholla cacti&nbsp;</td> <td>Hoffman, Donald M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>67</td> <td width="420">Sagebrush vegetation before and six years after 2,4-D application&nbsp;</td> <td>Anderson, Allen E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>68</td> <td width="420">The microscopic technique in food habit studies&nbsp;</td> <td>Bear, George D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>69</td> <td width="420">Evaluation of aerial antelope census technique.</td> <td>Bear, George D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>70</td> <td width="420">Antelope transplants in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Bear, George D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>71</td> <td width="420">Antelope and net-wire fences&nbsp;</td> <td>Bear, George D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>72</td> <td width="420">Traps for controlling magpies&nbsp;</td> <td>Kufeld, Roland C</td> </tr> <tr> <td>73</td> <td width="420">Techniques for determining potentially critical deer highway crossings&nbsp;</td> <td>Reed, Dale F.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>74</td> <td width="420">Guidelines for range type-conversion projects in sage grouse range&nbsp;</td> <td>Swope, Harold M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>75</td> <td width="420">A pulsating light for identifying animals at night&nbsp;</td> <td>Prenzlow, Edgar J.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>76</td> <td width="420">A quadrat count system for estimating game population.</td> <td>Gill, R. Bruce</td> </tr> <tr> <td>77</td> <td width="420">Deer-mirrors : a clearer picture&nbsp;</td> <td>Gordon, David F</td> </tr> <tr> <td>78</td> <td width="420">Guidelines for improving scaled quail habitat&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>79</td> <td width="420">A carrying crate for deer&nbsp;</td> <td>Bartmann, Richard M.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>80</td> <td width="420">Glossary of selected animal behavior definitions&nbsp;</td> <td>Prenzlow, Edgar J.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>81</td> <td width="420">Fencing for mule deer&nbsp;</td> <td>McKean, William T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>82</td> <td width="420">Recommended practices in habitat management for pheasants in eastern Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>82 rev.</td> <td width="420">Recommended habitat management practices for pheasants in eastern Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>83</td> <td width="420">An effective turtle trap&nbsp;</td> <td>Crawford, Gurney I.,</td> </tr> <tr> <td>84</td> <td width="420">Evaluation of the Piceance Creek meadow deer count&nbsp;</td> <td>Bartmann, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>85</td> <td width="420">Use of ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures in blasting potholes for wildlife&nbsp;</td> <td>Hopper, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>86</td> <td width="420">Determination of blue grouse sex and age from wing characteristics&nbsp;</td> <td>Braun, Clait E</td> </tr> <tr> <td>87</td> <td width="420">Stocking rates for mule deer and livestock on certain pinõn-juniper areas&nbsp;</td> <td>McKean, William T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>88</td> <td width="420">Breeding dates of Colorado elk as estimated by fetal growth curves&nbsp;</td> <td>Boyd, Raymond J</td> </tr> <tr> <td>89</td> <td width="420">Influence of livestock and mule deer upon vigor of Indian ricegrass and tufted phlox on a pinõn-juniper range&nbsp;</td> <td>McKean, William T.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>90</td> <td width="420">Status of mountain goats in Colorado&nbsp; [William H Rutherford]</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>91</td> <td width="420">Guidelines for evaluation of mountain goat transplant sites in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>92</td> <td width="420">Status of transplanted bighorn sheep in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>93</td> <td width="420">Guidelines for evaluating bighorn sheep transplanting sites in Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>94</td> <td width="420">A video time-lapse system for wildlife surveillance&nbsp;</td> <td>Reed, Dale F.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>95</td> <td width="420">Techniques for supplementing diet, attracting and baiting bighorn sheep&nbsp;</td> <td>Rutherford, William H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>96</td> <td width="420">The relation of three physical condition indices of mule deer&nbsp;</td> <td>Pojar, Thomas M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>97</td> <td width="420">Guidelines for estimating deer numbers in connection with claims of damage to growing crops.</td> <td>Bartmann, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>98</td> <td width="420">Postmortem thigh temperatures in mule deer&nbsp;</td> <td>Reed, Dale F.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>99</td> <td width="420">Seeding roadsides for pheasant nesting cover&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>100</td> <td width="420">Documenting lead poisoning in waterfowl&nbsp;</td> <td>Adrian, William J.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>101</td> <td width="420">A volunteer wing collection station&nbsp;</td> <td>Hoffman, Richard W</td> </tr> <tr> <td>102</td> <td width="420">Guideline to selecting rates of nitrogen fertilizer to increase herbage production on sagebrush winter ranges.</td> <td>Carpenter, Len H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>103</td> <td width="420">A night-viewing device to monitor activities of wildlife&nbsp;</td> <td>Carpenter, Len H</td> </tr> <tr> <td>104</td> <td width="420">A life-table for managing deer populations&nbsp;</td> <td>Freddy, David J.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>105</td> <td width="420">Heart-rate measurements in mule deer research&nbsp;</td> <td>Freddy, David J</td> </tr> <tr> <td>106</td> <td width="420">Procedures for rearing wild ruminants in captivity&nbsp;</td> <td>Neil, P. H.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>107</td> <td width="420">Winter foods of mule deer in Piceance basin&nbsp;</td> <td>Bartmann, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>108</td> <td width="420">Shrub thicket establishment in Colorado's high plains&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>109</td> <td width="420">Appraisal of a quadrat census for mule deer in pinyon-juniper vegetation&nbsp;</td> <td>Bartmann, Richard M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>110</td> <td width="420">Portable computer system for field processing biotelemetry triangulation data&nbsp;</td> <td>White, Gary C.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>111</td> <td width="420">Identification of grouse species by hunters in northwestern Colorado : Implications for management&nbsp;</td> <td>Giesen, Kenneth M</td> </tr> <tr> <td>112</td> <td width="420">Expanding telemetry collar for elk calves&nbsp;</td> <td>Bear, George D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>113</td> <td width="420">Establishing switchgrass for wildlife in eastern Colorado&nbsp;</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>114</td> <td width="420">Bottle-raising wild ruminants in captivity.</td> <td>Wild, Margaret A.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>115</td> <td width="420">Habitat management for upland game birds on eastern Colorado sandhill rangeland.</td> <td>Snyder, Warren D</td> </tr> <tr> <td>116</td> <td width="420">Colorado pronghorn compatibility and conflicts with agriculture.</td> <td>Pojar, Thomas M.</td> </tr> </tbody> </table>